This work describes the characterization of liquid explosive materials and the development of a simulant material. A Keysight coaxial probe was used to characterize the complex permittivity of the liquid explosive of interest and the simulant material formulations as a function of frequency. Data was collected over the frequency range of 500 MHz to 50 GHz. The frequency range overlaps several existing millimeter wavelength imaging systems. Complex permittivity data was processed using a Fresnel reflection/transmission model which produces an effective reflection coefficient for a sample of material as a function of frequency. The model accounts for sample thicknesses and backing materials such as skin and air. An ensemble average across the bandwidth of the millimeter wave system of interest is then applied to model the response of the material to the imaging system of interest. Complex permittivity data will be presented along with model results showing excellent agreement between the explosive material and its paired simulant material for MMW imaging systems of interest.
Advanced Imaging Technology (AIT) uses millimeter-waves for airport passenger screening. The Identification of Explosives (IDX) technique addresses secondary screening of detected anomalies by analyzing the reflectivity data across the frequency band of the imaging system to probe the electrical permittivity of the potential threat. To be practical, IDX must apply to targets that are not configured for free-space metrology, but have poorly defined surfaces and are imaged with non-ideal boundaries. In particular, the magnitude of the reflection coefficient, which is key to free-space measurement, cannot be obtained with any confidence. The detection is accomplished from frequency-dependent features in the interference spectrum, which provide material identifying information in the form of the dielectric loss tangent.
Millimeter wave (MMW) imaging systems have the capability of detecting anomalous objects, which can include explosive threats and other prohibited items concealed on persons in airport checkpoints and other facilities requiring personnel screening. Benign materials that simulate explosives and other threats are used to test Advanced Imaging Technology (AIT) systems when live threats cannot be placed on human subjects. While laboratory dielectric measurements are used to formulate candidate simulants, it is useful, and sometimes necessary, to independently validate a simulant for an AIT system of interest. An imaging phantom has been fabricated using standard vacuum hardware and thin plastic films for containing samples of interest. The phantom’s design allows for simultaneous imaging of threats and candidate simulants in a fixed, repeatable fashion. The phantom was self-validated with deionized water using a criterion for resolving two overlapped distributions. Results obtained from a subsequent study of a flammable liquid versus its candidate simulant are presented, validating the use of the simulant for use with the target AIT system.
The test and evaluation of millimeter-wave imaging systems for explosive detection is facilitated by the substitution of explosive simulants which have an identical response to millimeter-wave illumination. The primary detection feature for millimeter-wave imaging is the dielectric constant (or electrical permittivity), so the approach to developing simulants is to match the complex dielectric constants of explosives to inert simulant materials at frequencies relevant to the imaging system. This paper describes a measurement-based methodology to assure that the simulant is a suitable substitute for the explosive. The methodology is demonstrated by dielectric measurement at 86 GHz to establish a simulant for ethylene glycol dinitrate (EGDN).
Depth resolution and contrast (grayscale) resolution test objects have been proposed for incorporation into an ANSI standard for image quality of active millimeter wave (MMW) imagers for screening humans. A design for a depth resolution target has required the need for a thin film to generate a reflection while allowing for metal targets behind it to be visible to MMW imagers. Materials to accomplish this task have been identified, essentially acting as a millimeter wave beam splitter. Images obtained with a wide-bandwidth MMW imaging system are discussed. Additionally, by altering the resistivity of the thin film, the reflection coefficient of the film changes, allowing these films to be used as a contrast phantom for the testing of millimeter wave imaging systems. Measurements using laboratory millimeter wave systems are in good agreement with theory, and an image collected with a commercially-available MMW imaging systems is presented.
Commercial Advanced Imaging Technology (AIT) systems use arrays or synthetic arrays of millimeter wave antennas to generate holographic images and identify anomalies in those images that may present threats. In order to provide additional information for the AIT assessment, we are developing a technique that enables the identification of threat composition based on dielectric constant. The dielectric constant is extracted from the spectral content of the broadband holographic imaging data. The technique is demonstrated from images collected in a prototype personnel-screening system. The dielectric constant is obtained by numerically fitting the reflection coefficient as a function of frequency to an optical model. The reflection coefficient is a function of frequency because of propagation effects, such as multiple reflections and energy loss, that are associated with the material’s complex dielectric constant. In order to accomplish the analysis using an imaging system, the spectrum is obtained from an integration of the reflectivity image spectrum, which is an intermediate result in the image reconstruction algorithm. The present use of an imaging array demonstrates the ability to detect dielectric constant in small areas on a complex target. In principle, the implementation of this technique in standoff imaging systems would allow threat assessment to be accomplished within the scope of millimeter-wave screening.
Millimeter wave imaging is employed in Advanced Technology Imaging (AIT) systems to screen personnel for concealed explosives and weapons. AIT systems deployed in airports auto-detect potential threats by highlighting their location on a generic outline of a person using imaging data collected over a range of frequency. We show how the spectral information from the imaging data can be used to identify the composition of an anomalous object, in particular if it is an explosive material. The discriminative value of the technique was illustrated on military sheet explosive using millimeter-wave reflection data at frequencies 18 – 40 GHz, and commercial explosives using 2 – 18 GHz, but the free-space measurement was limited to a single horn with a large-area sample. This work extends the method to imaging data collected at high resolution with a 18 – 40 GHz imaging system. The identification of explosives is accomplished by extracting the dielectric constant from the free-space, multifrequency data. The reflection coefficient is a function of frequency because of propagation effects associated with the material’s complex dielectric constant, which include interference from multiple reflections and energy loss in the sample. The dielectric constant is obtained by numerically fitting the reflection coefficient as a function of frequency to an optical model. In principal, the implementation of this technique in standoff imaging systems would allow threat assessment to be accomplished within the scope of millimeter-wave screening.
In 2016, the millimeter wave (MMW) imaging community initiated the formation of a standard for millimeter wave image quality metrics. This new standard, American National Standards Institute (ANSI) N42.59, will apply to active MMW systems for security screening of humans. The Electromagnetic Signatures of Explosives Laboratory at the Transportation Security Laboratory is supporting the ANSI standards process via the creation of initial prototypes for round-robin testing with MMW imaging system manufacturers and experts. Results obtained for these prototypes will be used to inform the community and lead to consensus objective standards amongst stakeholders. Images collected with laboratory systems are presented along with results of preliminary image analysis. Future directions for object design, data collection and image processing are discussed.
We present a free space material measurement system operating in the E band (60-90 GHz) frequency range that uses calibration standards placed at the sample location to define the measurement reference plane directly at the sample surface. Measurement signal to noise is improved by using an aperture in radar absorbing material (RAM) to simplify the RF measurement environment. Measurements are provided that extend earlier work done in the 18-40 GHz frequency range. Data is extracted using numerical fitting of reflection-only data to a theoretical model based on geometric optics. System calibration, and results are presented.
The polymorphic phase of 1,3,5-trinitro-1,3,5-triazine (RDX) was examined as a function of mass loading, solvent and sample deposition technique. When RDX was deposited at a high mass loading, the vibrational modes in the obtained Raman spectra were indicative of concomitant polymorphism as both the α and β-RDX phases were present. At low mass loadings, only β-RDX was observed regardless of solvent or mass loading. However, only the bulk phase (i.e., α- RDX) was observed when RDX deposits were dry transferred. Observation of the bulk phase was independent of the initial mass loading or the initial deposition solvent when using the dry transfer methodology. This data demonstrates that the use of the dry transfer preparation method can be used to successfully prepare RDX-based standards with the bulk phase regardless of the solvent used to initially dissolve the RDX, the initial deposition technique, or the mass loading.
A method for extracting dielectric constant from free-space 18 - 40 GHz millimeter-wave reflection data is demonstrated. The reflection coefficient is a function of frequency because of propagation effects, and numerically fitting data to a theoretical model based on geometric optics gives a solution for the complex dielectric constant and target thickness. The discriminative value is illustrated with inert substances and military sheet explosive. In principle, the measurement of reflectivity across multiple frequencies can be incorporated into Advanced Imaging Technology (AIT) systems to automatically identify the composition of anomalies detected on persons at screening checkpoints.
Preliminary design considerations for an image quality tool to complement millimeter wave imaging systems are presented. The tool is planned for use in confirming operating parameters; confirmation of continuity for imaging component design changes, and analysis of new components and detection algorithms. Potential embodiments of an image quality tool may contain materials that mimic human skin in order to provide a realistic signal return for testing, which may also help reduce or eliminate the need for mock passengers for developmental testing. Two candidate materials, a dielectric liquid and an iron-loaded epoxy, have been identified and reflection measurements have been performed using laboratory systems in the range 18 - 40 GHz. Results show good agreement with both laboratory and literature data on human skin, particularly in the range of operation of two commercially available millimeter wave imaging systems. Issues related to the practical use of liquids and magnetic materials for image quality tools are discussed.
As the development of active millimeter wave imaging systems continues, it is necessary to validate materials that
simulate the expected response of explosives. While physics-based models have been used to develop simulants, it is
desirable to image both the explosive and simulant together in a controlled fashion in order to demonstrate success. To
this end, a millimeter wave contrast phantom has been created to calibrate image grayscale while controlling the
configuration of the explosive and simulant such that direct comparison of their respective returns can be performed. The
physics of the phantom are described, with millimeter wave images presented to show successful development of the
phantom and simulant validation at GHz frequencies.
The Raman spectra of triacetone triperoxide (TATP) and its fully deuterated isotopologue (d18-TATP) have been measured.
Density functional theory calculations were performed using the EDF2/6-311++G** and B3LYP/6-311++G**
methods/basis set to predict the Raman spectra of both the parent and deuterated isotopologues. The predicted isotopic
shifts were used to identify frequency shifts in the experimental results and tentative assignments have been made for 10
fundamental vibrational modes of d18-TATP.
The appearance of a material viewed in millimeter wavelength is a function of its reflectivity and absorptivity.
These optical properties can be derived from measurement of the complex dielectric constant. Knowledge of
the imaginary component is particularly important to assess the brightness of transparent or semi-transparent
materials, in which the return from the back surface contributes to the overall reflection. The method presented
here is well-suited to determine the dielectric constant of small samples of low-loss materials, and uses a
modification of the dielectric-post resonator technique in which the sample fits into a larger, solid post fixture.
The measurement frequency varies only slightly among different sample materials because the electromagnetic
properties of the resonance are largely set by the supporting fixture. The method can be used to measure liquids
and powders, as well as solid materials. The design and electromagnetic theory of the resonant technique are
described, and the precision is discussed in context of sample measurements.
Devices using electromagnetic (EM) waves in the GHz range are evolving rapidly. The advancement of this technology
for security applications, such as explosives detection and personnel screening, requires an understanding of the optical
properties of various materials. Using terahertz time-domain spectroscopy and free space millimeter-wave
measurements, the dielectric constant of explosives have been measured. Methods used to standardize the experimental
measurement and characterize the EM/material interaction are described. These results have enabled the development of
mixtures of benign substances as simulants for testing. A comparison of the anticipated signal returns are presented for
the range 100 - 500 GHz for a limited set of explosives and simulants.
A tomographic imaging system using ultrasonic Lamb waves for the nondestructive inspection of aircraft components such as wings and fuselage is being developed. The computer-based system provides large-area inspection capability by electronically scanning an array of transducers that can be easily attached to flat and curved surface without moving parts. Images of the inspected area are produced in near real time employing a tomographic reconstruction method adapted from seismological applications. Changes in material properties caused by structural flaws such as disbonds, corrosion, and fatigue cracks can be effectively detected and characterized utilizing this fast NDE technique.
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