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Reviews, Tutorials, Plenaries, and Keynotes from SPIE Journals and Proceedings

Select this Article OPEN ACCESS		Mask industry assessment trend analysis: 2012 Y. David Chan Proc. SPIE 8352, 835203 (2012); http://dx.doi.org/10.1117/12.923746 Online Publication Date: Apr 16, 2012 Full Text: \| Download PDF
	+ -	Show Abstract Microelectronics industry leaders consistently cite the cost and cycle time of mask technology and mask supply among the top critical issues for lithography. A survey was designed by SEMATECH with input from semiconductor company mask technologists and merchant mask suppliers to objectively assess the overall conditions of the mask industry. With the continued support of the industry, this year's assessment was the tenth in the current series of annual reports. This year's survey is basically the same as the 2005 through 2011 surveys. Questions are grouped into six categories: General Business Profile Information, Data Processing, Yields and Yield Loss Mechanisms, Delivery Times, Returns, and Services. Within each category is a multitude of questions that ultimately produce a detailed profile of both the business and technical status of the critical mask industry. We received data from 11 companies this year, which was a record high since the beginning of the series. The responding companies represented more than 96% of the volume shipped and about 90% of the 2011 revenue for the photomask industry. These survey reports are often used as a baseline to gain perspective on the technical and business status of the mask and microelectronics industries. They will continue to serve as a valuable reference to identify strengths and opportunities. Results can also be used to guide future investments in critical path issues.

Select this Article OPEN ACCESS		Nanometer-level semiconductor imaging for micrometer-level MEMS Burn J. Lin Proc. SPIE 8352, 835202 (2012); http://dx.doi.org/10.1117/12.945686 Online Publication Date: Apr 16, 2012 Full Text: \| Download PDF
	+ -	Show Abstract Lithography spearheaded the semiconductor industry to nanometer-level feature sizes. The MEMS industry, having started later and being less developed in economy of scale, can take advantage of the experience of semiconductor patterning to make MEMS patterning cheaper and faster. Even though most MEMS devices are still in the micrometer regime, there are still many semiconductor lithography techniques to benefit from. Four types of lithography are used for MEMS fabrication: proximity printing, nanoimprint, projection printing, and maskless direct write. Projection printing stands out as the best candidate for MEMS high volume manufacturing. The MEMS technology places more emphasis on DOF than resolution. It often requires fabrication of obliquely oriented devices. It also needs to test many innovative ideas before committing to mass production. Several semiconductor methods and some MEMS-specific methods to extend the depth of focus are covered. Multiple-e-beam direct-write systems are discussed with a focus on the suitability to high volume manufacturing in cost and lithographic performance for MEMS.

Select this Article OPEN ACCESS		112 Gb/s PM-QPSK transmission systems with reach lengths enabled by optical fibers with ultra-low loss and very large effective area John D. Downie Proc. SPIE 8284, 828403 (2012); http://dx.doi.org/10.1117/12.906838 Online Publication Date: Jan 24, 2012 Full Text: \| Download PDF
	+ -	Show Abstract Steadily increasing data traffic gives rise to increasing capacity requirements in optical communication networks. It is well understood that systems with higher symbol rates and/or multi-level modulation formats generally demand higher optical signal-to-noise ratio (OSNR) at the receiver to achieve acceptable system performance. In terms of the optical fiber medium, higher OSNR can be attained by lowering fiber loss and reducing fiber nonlinearity. We review several recent experimental investigations of 112 Gb/s PM-QPSK transmission with reach-length results enabled by the use of optical fibers with ultra-low loss and very large effective area.

Select this Article OPEN ACCESS		Space-division multiplexed transmission over few-mode- and coupled-core fiber based on coherent MIMO digital signal processing Roland Ryf, Sebastian Randel, René-Jean Essiambre, and Peter J. Winzer Proc. SPIE 8284, 828402 (2012); http://dx.doi.org/10.1117/12.915671 Online Publication Date: Jan 24, 2012 Full Text: \| Download PDF
	+ -	Show Abstract The capacity of optical transmission systems has increased dramatically since their first deployments in the mid 1970s . However, studies show that the theoretical capacity limit of single-mode fiber is about to be reached, and space-division multiplexing has been proposed to overcome this limit. With the high levels of integration needed for economic deployment, space-division multiplexing may exhibit large crosstalk between the supported fiber modes. We propose to use coherent multiple-input multiple-output (MIMO) digital signal processing (DSP), a technique widely used in wireless communication, to compensate crosstalk present in spatial multiplexing over fibers. According to MIMO theory, crosstalk in multi-mode transmission systems can be completely reversed if the crosstalk is described by a unitary transformation. For optical fibers this is fulfilled if all available fiber modes can be selectively excited and if all the modes are coherently detected at the end of the fiber, provided that mode-dependent loss is negligible. We successfully applied the technique to demonstrate the transmission of six independent mode-multiplexed 20-Gbaud QPSK signals over a single, optically amplified span of 137-km few-mode fiber (FMF). Further, in a multi-span experiment, we reach 1200 km by transmitting over a 3-core coupled-core fiber (CCF). Details for both experiments will be presented, including the description of the supported polarization- and spatial modes of the fiber, the mode multiplexers used to launch and detect the modes, and the MIMO DSP algorithm used to recover the channels.

Select this Article OPEN ACCESS		Optical coherent technologies in next generation access networks Katsumi Iwatsuki and Katsutoshi Tsukamoto Proc. SPIE 8282, 828202 (2012); http://dx.doi.org/10.1117/12.907499 Online Publication Date: Jan 24, 2012 Full Text: \| Download PDF
	+ -	Show Abstract This paper reviews optical coherent technologies in next generation access networks with the use of radio over fiber (RoF), which offer key enabling technologies of wired and wireless integrated and/or converged broadband access networks to accommodate rapidly widespread cloud computing services. We describe technical issues on conventional RoF based on subcarrier modulation (SCM) and their countermeasures. Two examples of RoF access networks with optical coherent technologies to solve the technical issues are introduced; a video distribution system with FM conversion and wired and wireless integrated wide-area access network with photonic up- and down-conversion.

Select this Article OPEN ACCESS		Spinoptics: Spin degeneracy removal in nanostructures Vladimir Kleiner, Nir Shitrit, and Erez Hasman Proc. SPIE 8269, 826902 (2012); http://dx.doi.org/10.1117/12.927373 Online Publication Date: Feb 21, 2012 Full Text: \| Download PDF
	+ -	Show Abstract Spin-symmetry breaking in nanoscale structures caused by spin-orbit interaction, leading to a new branch in optics - spinoptics is presented. The spin-based effects offer an unprecedented ability to control light and its polarization state in nanometer-scale optical devices, thereby facilitating a variety of applications related to nano-photonics. The direct observation of optical spin-Hall effect that appears when a wave carrying spin angular momentum (AM) interacts with plasmonic nanostructures is introduced. A plasmonic nanostructure exhibits a crucial role of an AM selection rule in a light-surface plasmon scattering process. A spin-dependent dispersion splitting was obtained in a structure consisting of a coupled thermal antenna array. The observed effects inspire one to investigate other spin-based plasmonic effects and to propose a new generation of optical elements for nano-photonic applications.

Select this Article OPEN ACCESS		New optical, acoustic, and electrical diagnostics for the developing world S. L. Neale, C. Witte, Y. Bourquin, C. Kremer, A. Menachery, Y. Zhang, R. Wilson, J. Reboud, and J. M. Cooper Proc. SPIE 8251, 825102 (2012); http://dx.doi.org/10.1117/12.924357 Online Publication Date: Feb 02, 2012 Full Text: \| Download PDF
	+ -	Show Abstract Infectious diseases cause 10 million deaths each year worldwide, accounting for ~60% of all deaths of children aged 5- 14. Although these deaths arise primarily through pneumonia, TB, malaria and HIV, there are also the so called "neglected diseases" such as sleeping sickness and bilharzia, which have a devastating impact on rural communities, in sub-Sahara Africa. There, the demands for a successful Developing World diagnostic are particularly rigorous, requiring low cost instrumentation with low power consumption (there is often no fixed power infrastructure). In many cases, the levels of infection within individuals are also sufficiently low that instruments must show extraordinary sensitivity, with measurements being made in blood or saliva. In this talk, a description of these demands will be given, together with a review of some of the solutions that have been developed, which include using acoustics, optics and electrotechnologies, and their combinations to manipulate the fluid samples. In one example, we show how to find a single trypanosome, as the causative agent of sleeping sickness.

Select this Article OPEN ACCESS		Powering the wireless world with MEMS Samuel B. Schaevitz Proc. SPIE 8248, 824802 (2012); http://dx.doi.org/10.1117/12.924356 Online Publication Date: Feb 01, 2012 Full Text: \| Download PDF
	+ -	Show Abstract Battery life is huge problem for today's CE devices and every year the problem gets worse. That is a painful consequence of the explosion in capability and applications in modern wireless electronics of all types, and is particularly acute in advanced smartphones. Fuel cells have long been touted as the solution to the battery problem, and significant programs have been funded at large companies, start-ups, and within academia. Thus far, none of those efforts have resulted in a commercially successful product for consumer electronics. Lilliputian Systems has taken a unique approach by leveraging MEMS fabrication methods to enable the use of a fuel cell known as a solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC). SOFCs provide high efficiency and reliable operation in a very compact Silicon Power Cell™, and allow the use of high energy density fuels, such as butane. This combination overcomes the barriers which have prevented other fuel cell efforts from being commercialized. But in order to use SOFCs, the MEMS structure must operate at elevated temperatures, typically above 600°C, must do so very efficiently, and must be effectively integrated into a complete system. By overcoming these unusual challenges, Lilliputian has developed a solution with a run-time 5-10X longer than existing batteries and with instant recharge by inserting a new cartridge. The absolute safety of the approach is supported by world-wide approval for carry-on and use on airplanes. Over the past several years, Lilliputian Systems has created the many innovations required to bring this complex system to high-volume manufacturing. We will discuss the unique challenges in system architecture and high-temperature MEMS design which have been overcome, enabling Lilliputian to provide long-lasting portable power for consumer electronics devices.

Select this Article OPEN ACCESS		Plasmonic nano-architectures for surface enhanced Raman scattering: a review G. V. Pavan Kumar J. Nanophoton. 6, 064503 (4 May 2012); http://dx.doi.org/10.1117/1.JNP.6.064503 Online Publication Date: May 04, 2012 Full Text: Read Online (HTML) \| Download PDF
	+ -	Show Abstract Surface enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) is an optical spectroscopy technique with single molecule sensitivity and chemical specificity. The electromagnetic enhancement mechanism of SERS is facilitated by the localized surface plasmons of metallic nanostructures utilized in experiments. The magnitude of the local optical field created by the plasmonic nanostructure depends on parameters such as size, shape, morphology, arrangement, and local environment of the nanostructure. By tuning these parameters, electromagnetic hot spots can be created to facilitate ultra-sensitive, subwavelength SERS detection platforms. In recent years, there have been a number of innovations in nanofabrication and synthesis of plasmonic nanostructures. This has led to a variety of plasmonic nano-architectures that can be harnessed for SERS. Recently investigated plasmonic nanostructures in the context of SERS include nanosphere dimers, individual nanocubes, nanotriangular arrays, nano-pyramid shells, individual and assembly of nanorods, nanowires, and nanotips, and some unconventional nano-architectures. Challenges in fundamental and application aspects of SERS remain for future research.

Select this Article OPEN ACCESS		Raman and coherent anti-Stokes Raman scattering microspectroscopy for biomedical applications Christoph Krafft, Benjamin Dietzek, Michael Schmitt, and Jürgen Popp J. Biomed. Opt. 17, 040801 (27 April 2012); http://dx.doi.org/10.1117/1.JBO.17.4.040801 Online Publication Date: Apr 27, 2012 Full Text: Read Online (HTML) \| Download PDF
	+ -	Show Abstract A tutorial article is presented for the use of linear and nonlinear Raman microspectroscopies in biomedical diagnostics. Coherent anti-Stokes Raman scattering (CARS) is the most frequently applied nonlinear variant of Raman spectroscopy. The basic concepts of Raman and CARS are introduced first, and subsequent biomedical applications of Raman and CARS are described. Raman microspectroscopy is applied to both in-vivo and in-vitro tissue diagnostics, and the characterization and identification of individual mammalian cells. These applications benefit from the fact that Raman spectra provide specific information on the chemical composition and molecular structure in a label-free and nondestructive manner. Combining the chemical specificity of Raman spectroscopy with the spatial resolution of an optical microscope allows recording hyperspectral images with molecular contrast. We also elaborate on interfacing Raman spectroscopic tools with other technologies such as optical tweezing, microfluidics and fiber optic probes. Thereby, we aim at presenting a guide into one exciting branch of modern biophotonics research.

Select this Article OPEN ACCESS		Brief history of electronic stereoscopic displays Lenny Lipton Opt. Eng. 51, 021103 (5 March 2012); http://dx.doi.org/10.1117/1.OE.51.2.021103 Online Publication Date: Mar 05, 2012 Full Text: Read Online (HTML) \| Download PDF
	+ -	Show Abstract A brief history of recent developments in electronic stereoscopic displays is given concentrating on products that have succeeded in the market place and hence have had a significant influence on future implementations. The concentration is on plano-stereoscopic (two-view) technology because it is now the dominant display modality in the marketplace. Stereoscopic displays were created for the motion picture industry a century ago, and this technology influenced the development of products for science and industry, which in turn influenced product development for entertainment.

Select this Article OPEN ACCESS		State-of-the art of acoust-optic sensing and imaging of turbid media Steffen G. Resink, Wiendelt Steenbergen, and Albert C. Boccara J. Biomed. Opt. 17, 040901 (6 April 2012); http://dx.doi.org/10.1117/1.JBO.17.4.040901 Online Publication Date: Apr 06, 2012 Full Text: Read Online (HTML) \| Download PDF
	+ -	Show Abstract Acousto-optic (AO) is an emerging hybrid technique for measuring optical contrast in turbid media using coherent light and ultrasound (US). A turbid object is illuminated with a coherent light source leading to speckle formation in the remitted light. With the use of US, a small volume is selected,which is commonly referred to as the “tagging” volume. This volume acts as a source of modulated light, where modulation might involve phase and intensity change. The tagging volume is created by focusing ultrasound for good lateral resolution; the axial resolution is accomplished by making either the US frequency, amplitude, or phase time-dependent. Typical resolutions are in the order of 1 mm. We will concentrate on the progress in the field since 2003. Different schemes will be discussed to detect the modulated photons based on speckle detection, heterodyne detection, photorefractive crystal (PRC) assisted detection, and spectral hole burning (SHB) as well as Fabry-Perot interferometers. The SHB and Fabry-Perot interferometer techniques are insensitive to speckle decorrelation and therefore suitable for in vivo imaging. However, heterodyne and PRC methods also have potential for in vivo measurements. Besides measuring optical properties such as scattering and absorption, AO can be applied in fluorescence and elastography applications.

Select this Article OPEN ACCESS		Synthesis, electromechanical characterization, and applications of graphene nanostructures Traian Dumitrică, Suneel Kodambaka, and Sukky Jun J. Nanophoton. 6, 064501 (24 February 2012); http://dx.doi.org/10.1117/1.JNP.6.064501 Online Publication Date: Feb 24, 2012 Full Text: Read Online (HTML) \| Download PDF
	+ -	Show Abstract The emerging field of graphene brings together scientists and engineers as the discovered fundamental properties and effects encountered in this new material can be rapidly exploited for practical applications. There is potential for a two-dimensional graphene-based technology and recent works have already demonstrated the utility of graphene in building nanoelectromechanical systems, complex electronic circuits, photodetectors and ultrafast lasers. The state-of-the-art of substrate-suported graphene growth, and the current fundamental understanding of the electromechanical properties of graphene and graphene nanoribbons, represent important knowledge for developing new applications.

Select this Article OPEN ACCESS		Vibrational spectroscopy: a tool being developed for the noninvasive monitoring of wound healing Nicole J. Crane and Eric A. Elster J. Biomed. Opt. 17, 010902 (25 January 2012); http://dx.doi.org/10.1117/1.JBO.17.1.010902 Online Publication Date: Jan 25, 2012 Full Text: Read Online (HTML) \| Download PDF
	+ -	Show Abstract Wound care and management accounted for over 1.8 million hospital discharges in 2009. The complex nature of wound physiology involves hundreds of overlapping processes that we have only begun to understand over the past three decades. The management of wounds remains a significant challenge for inexperienced clinicians. The ensuing inflammatory response ultimately dictates the pace of wound healing and tissue regeneration. Consequently, the eventual timing of wound closure or definitive coverage is often subjective. Some wounds fail to close, or dehisce, despite the use and application of novel wound-specific treatment modalities. An understanding of the molecular environment of acute and chronic wounds throughout the wound-healing process can provide valuable insight into the mechanisms associated with the patient’s outcome. Pathologic alterations of wounds are accompanied by fundamental changes in the molecular environment that can be analyzed by vibrational spectroscopy. Vibrational spectroscopy, specifically Raman and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, offers the capability to accurately detect and identify the various molecules that compose the extracellular matrix during wound healing in their native state. The identified changes might provide the objective markers of wound healing, which can then be integrated with clinical characteristics to guide the management of wounds.

Select this Article OPEN ACCESS		Progress in color night vision Alexander Toet and Maarten A. Hogervorst Opt. Eng. 51, 010901 (6 February 2012); http://dx.doi.org/10.1117/1.OE.51.1.010901 Online Publication Date: Feb 06, 2012 Full Text: Read Online (HTML) \| Download PDF
	+ -	Show Abstract We present an overview of our recent progress and the current state-of-the-art techniques of color image fusion for night vision applications. Inspired by previously developed color opponent fusing schemes, we initially developed a simple pixel-based false color-mapping scheme that yielded fused false color images with large color contrast and preserved the identity of the input signals. This method has been successfully deployed in different areas of research. However, since this color mapping did not produce realistic colors, we continued to develop a statistical color-mapping procedure that would transfer the color distribution of a given example image to a multiband nighttime image. This procedure yields a realistic color rendering. However, it is computationally expensive and achieves no color constancy since the mapping depends on the relative amounts of the different materials in the scene. By applying the statistical mapping approach in a color look-up-table framework, we finally achieved both color constancy and computational simplicity. This sample-based color transfer method is specific for different types of materials in a scene and can be easily adapted for the intended operating theatre and the task at hand. The method can be implemented as a look-up-table transform and is highly suitable for real-time implementations.

Select this Article OPEN ACCESS		Near-infrared diffuse correlation spectroscopy in cancer diagnosis and therapy monitoring Guoqiang Yu J. Biomed. Opt. 17, 010901 (7 February 2012); http://dx.doi.org/10.1117/1.JBO.17.1.010901 Online Publication Date: Feb 07, 2012 Full Text: Read Online (HTML) \| Download PDF
	+ -	Show Abstract A novel near-infrared (NIR) diffuse correlation spectroscopy (DCS) for tumor blood flow measurement is introduced in this review paper. DCS measures speckle fluctuations of NIR diffuse light in tissue, which are sensitive to the motions of red blood cells. DCS offers several attractive new features for tumor blood flow measurement such as noninvasiveness, portability, high temporal resolution, and relatively large penetration depth. DCS technology has been utilized for continuous measurement of tumor blood flow before, during, and after cancer therapies. In those pilot investigations, DCS hemodynamic measurements add important new variables into the mix for differentiation of benign from malignant tumors and for prediction of treatment outcomes. It is envisaged that with more clinical applications in large patient populations, DCS might emerge as an important method of choice for bedside management of cancer therapy, and it will certainly provide important new information about cancer physiology that may be of use in diagnosis.

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