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Proceedings Volume X-Ray Instrumentation in Medicine and Biology, Plasma Physics, Astrophysics, and Synchrotron Radiation, (1989) https://doi.org/10.1117/12.961794
For most of us, our experience with x-rays relates mostly to medical and dental diagnostics based on simple shadow casting techniques. As observed by Rontgen in his pioneering workl of 1895, x-rays are not easily reflected or refracted by the usual techniques of visible optics. Now, however, advances in technology are permitting a significant extension of the utility of x-rays as tools for science and technology. The new techniques bypass the limitations imposed by refractive indices of all materials at these wavelengths, n = 1 - δ -iβ, where δ and β are comparable to each other and very much less than unity.
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Proceedings Volume X-Ray Instrumentation in Medicine and Biology, Plasma Physics, Astrophysics, and Synchrotron Radiation, (1989) https://doi.org/10.1117/12.961795
X ray emission, including x-ray lasing from laser-produced plasmas is reviewed. Particular emphasis is given to applications which study the physics of matter at high density and temperature.
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Proceedings Volume X-Ray Instrumentation in Medicine and Biology, Plasma Physics, Astrophysics, and Synchrotron Radiation, (1989) https://doi.org/10.1117/12.961796
Plaafocs devices producing small volume of plasma with electron density ne ≈ 1020 cm-3 and mean particle energy of about 1 keV seem to meet the requirements for compact X-ray sources for industrial use. Their emission properties can be taylored for X-ray microscopy where narrowband emission with high spectral brilliance in the water window (2.4 nm to 4.3 nm) is required, as well as for X-ray lithography demanding for high mean power in the wavelength region from 0.7 nm to 1.0 nm. For X-ray microscopy the emission of Lyman-a lines is of advantage whereas for X-ray lithography the broadband continuum and line radiation can be used. For X-ray microscopy a single pulse source using the is - 2p line of nitrogen VII at 2.48 nm and for X-ray lithography a source running with several Hz repetition rate using the emission of hydrogen- and heliumlike neon ions around 1 nm are being developed.
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M. H. Key, S. J. Rose, M. Grande, G. Tallents, S. Ramsden, A. Rogoyski, C. Lewis, D. O'Neill, C. Regan, et al.
Proceedings Volume X-Ray Instrumentation in Medicine and Biology, Plasma Physics, Astrophysics, and Synchrotron Radiation, (1989) https://doi.org/10.1117/12.961797
Recent advances in research work by a consortium of UK groups using facilities at the Rutherford Appleton Laboratory to develop XUV lasers is reviewed. Experimental demonstration of laser action by recombination to hydrogenic ions has been extrapolated from C VI 18.2 nm to Mg XII at 4.5 nm, in a collaborative experiment with Osaka University using the GEKKO XII laser. Recombination to lithium-like ions has been investigated in collaboration with the University of Orsay. High gain x length producing a useful XUV laser beam has been obtained using the collisionally excited Ge XXIII 3p-3s laser at 23.2/23.6 nm in collaboration with the Naval Research Laboratory. Future possibilities for XUV lasers pumped by more powerful primary lasers are considered.
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Sergey N. Belov, Evgeny M. Golubev, Nina N. Ogurtzova, Ivan V. Podmoshensky, Elena V. Priemysheva, Elena G. Vinokurova
Proceedings Volume X-Ray Instrumentation in Medicine and Biology, Plasma Physics, Astrophysics, and Synchrotron Radiation, (1989) https://doi.org/10.1117/12.961798
The high-temperature capillary arc discharge (HTCAD) is suggested as reference source for calibrating radiation in the far VUV - soft X-ray spectral range. Plasma radiation intensities in the ion CIV lines in visible and UV spectral regions have been determined for HTCAD with the pyrographite capillary, 0.22 cm I.D.,and 0.6 cm in length, at current pulse duration t=30 mcs, electron density ne=6.1017 cm-3 and temperature T=380000 K. The emitting zones are located in the anode and cathode plasma jets flowing in the vacuum chamber pumped down to pressure of 0.1 Pa. The spectra have been recorded in short-wave TIT V spectral range. The ion CIV lines are shown to be optically thin and the radiation intensities in spectral lines 22.3 and 25.9 nm have been measured by the method of pair of lines with the common upper level.
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A. C. Thompson, J. H. Underwood, Y. Wu, R. D . Giauque, K. W. Jones, M. L. Rivers, R, G. Futernick
Proceedings Volume X-Ray Instrumentation in Medicine and Biology, Plasma Physics, Astrophysics, and Synchrotron Radiation, (1989) https://doi.org/10.1117/12.961799
A synchrotron radiation based x-ray microprobe allows the analysis of samples with higher spatial resolution and better elemental sensitivity than is possible with laboratory x-ray sources. In addition, the development of high efficiency x-ray mirrors using multilqyer coated optical mirrors now permits the achievement of spot sizes of less than 100μm2 Since samples to be studied in an x-ray microprobe do not have to be placed in a vacuum, almost any sample can be conveniently analyzed. Examples of samples that can be studied are fluid inclusions in quartz rocks, blue-green algae filaments, "fox" marks on old documents and ink on old documents.
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S. Suckewer, D. DiCicco, D. Kim, L. Meixler, C. H. Nam, J. Robinson, C. H. Skinner, W. Tighe
Proceedings Volume X-Ray Instrumentation in Medicine and Biology, Plasma Physics, Astrophysics, and Synchrotron Radiation, (1989) https://doi.org/10.1117/12.961800
This paper describes work at Princeton on X-ray laser microscopy. Related to this work is a new system for the development of an X-ray laser in the wavelength region from 5 nm to 1 nm utilizing a Powerful Sub-Picosecond Laser (PP-Laser) of expected peak power up to 0.5 TW in a 300 fs pulse. Soft X-ray spectra generated by the interaction of the PP-Laser beam with different targets are presented and compared to the spectra generated by a much less intense laser beam (20-30 GW). The development of additional amplifiers for the recombining soft X-ray laser and the design of a cavity are presented from the point of view of applications for X-ray microscopy and microlithography.
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Proceedings Volume X-Ray Instrumentation in Medicine and Biology, Plasma Physics, Astrophysics, and Synchrotron Radiation, (1989) https://doi.org/10.1117/12.961801
A simple model of image formation in the x-ray microscope is used to investigate the relationship between contrast, signal to noise ratio, dose and image resolution. The important feature of this model is the role that the depth of field is expected to play in determining the dose to the specimen when imaging at high resolution, with the result that the dose can be expected to increase as the inverse sixth power of the resolution. Some deficiencies in this model are examined for the case of thin specimens, where linear contrast transfer theory can be applied, and it is shown that there are some advantages associated with the use of phase contrast imaging conditions. Finally, methods of producing phase contrast in the imaging microscope and the scanning microscope are compared in terms of their contrast transfer functions and the ease with which they can be realised in practice.
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Proceedings Volume X-Ray Instrumentation in Medicine and Biology, Plasma Physics, Astrophysics, and Synchrotron Radiation, (1989) https://doi.org/10.1117/12.961802
An account is given of some of the most recent advances in detection systems for X-ray astronomy.
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Proceedings Volume X-Ray Instrumentation in Medicine and Biology, Plasma Physics, Astrophysics, and Synchrotron Radiation, (1989) https://doi.org/10.1117/12.961803
Microchannel Plate (MCP) based detectors for the soft X-ray range (0.1 to 10 key) provide high efficiency (> 10%), large format (10 cm x 10 cm), high time resolution (intrinsically < 1 ns), low background ( <0.2 counts cm-2 s-1 at sea level), and high spatial resolution (< 20 um FWHM) two-dimensional imaging. When operated in high gain ( > 1.07) cascaded pairs they can be used for single photon detection and provide an extremely powerful means for imaging faint point and extended sources of soft X-ray radiation and for reading out high resolution faint spectra fom dispersive elements. They have found application in X-ray astronomy satellites (Einstein Observatory and EXOSAT) and will be used in future X-ray astronomy missions (ROSAT and AXAF). Many areas have benefited from the development of MCP detectors for X-ray astronomy including soft X-ray microscopy, plasma diagnostics, and extended absorption fine structure (EXAFS) research. Perhaps the brief description here of MCP detectors for X-ray astronomy applications will further the transfer of this technology into new areas of medicine, biology, plasma physics, and synchrotron radiation.
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Proceedings Volume X-Ray Instrumentation in Medicine and Biology, Plasma Physics, Astrophysics, and Synchrotron Radiation, (1989) https://doi.org/10.1117/12.961804
An X-ray area detector diffractometer and a tunable monochromomator have been built and installed on a synchrotron radiation line at LURE. The detector, based on techniques used for high energy physics, is a parallax-free multiwire proportional chamber featuring a high count rate, a high efficiency and an accurate and conformal mapping function. The software has been developed by cooperative programming.This apparatus is used for fast acquisition of diffraction data from macromolecular crystals; its characteristics make it especially suitable for multiple wavelength anomalous diffraction measurements.
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Proceedings Volume X-Ray Instrumentation in Medicine and Biology, Plasma Physics, Astrophysics, and Synchrotron Radiation, (1989) https://doi.org/10.1117/12.961805
The emission of laser created plasmas in the X-UV range (i.e. around 100eV) comes from a very dense and a relatively cold region. A specific use of the X-UV imaging of laser plasmas is the record of the emission of the backside of illuminated thin foils. A very hot plasma (≥1keV temperature) takes place on the front side of the thin foil target when illuminated by a powerful laser. This hot plasma radiates in the forward and backward directions. Inside the target, the radiation is absorbed by the solid material and increases its temperature. Several calculations show that this effect called radiative preheat or radiative heating is very important in inertial fusion experiments at short laser wavelengths. We present, in this paper, a calculation which shows the mechanism of radiative heating of a foil. Then, we demonstrate the interest of recording emission in the X-UV range to determine a backside temperature and prevent optical depth effects. Finally, we present records of the time resolved emission of the backside of thin aluminium foils(5 and 10 μm). The records are done with four Schwartzchild microscopes coupled with an X-UV streak camera. The recorded wavelengths are 10, 40, 80, and 108 eV; the time resolution is 25 picosecondes. A backside temperature is tried to be deduced from the results.
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R. Kessel, D. M. Walton, J. L. Culhane, W. S. Holland, I. D. Hepburn, P. A. R. Ade, M. J. Griffin
Proceedings Volume X-Ray Instrumentation in Medicine and Biology, Plasma Physics, Astrophysics, and Synchrotron Radiation, (1989) https://doi.org/10.1117/12.961806
We report measurements on the energy resolution of germanium X-ray calorimeters for the energy range 1-50 keV. The detector we use is a modified infrared bolometer which is currently operated at 3He temperatures (0.31K) and is capable of attaining a FWHM of 172 eV for 5.9 keV X-rays. We have identified and characterized two types of event which can contaminate the spectrum of the bare germanium calorimeter. The first type is due to photons absorbed in the indium soldered contacts of the detector. The second type is due to β-particles striking the detector. The theoretical performance of such a device has been modelled by considering the individual noise sources that limit the energy resolution. We also present a discussion concerning the post-processing of data which employs both the techniques of matched filtering and maximum entropy method deconvolution.
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Proceedings Volume X-Ray Instrumentation in Medicine and Biology, Plasma Physics, Astrophysics, and Synchrotron Radiation, (1989) https://doi.org/10.1117/12.961807
Much work has been done to characterize materials which can be used for filters in the vacuum ultraviolet and X-ray region of the electromagnetic spectrum from about 1500 A down to 10 A more or less. More recently, efforts have been made to make use of some newer materials such as polycarbonate (trademark Lexan) and composites of materials to tailor filters to specific requirements. This paper compiles and compares the results of different measurement programs, including very recent work which better quantifies transmission as a function of wavelength for various filter and window materials. Of particular interest is some correlated data on Lexan with empirically derived mass absorption coefficients as a function of wavelength. Also included are comments on recent efforts to use composite materials to design or adjust the bandpass of a filter to meet particular research requirements. There are also some comments on the development of thin film materials for other uses such as in photocathodes and laser targets. As a result of the combined work reported here, data will be available which will make it easier to specify and predict the performance of filters and windows for specific applications.
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K. Oades, D. S. Mather, G Murray, C. Bentley, J. C. V. Hansom, P. Fieldhouse, T. J. Goldsack
Proceedings Volume X-Ray Instrumentation in Medicine and Biology, Plasma Physics, Astrophysics, and Synchrotron Radiation, (1989) https://doi.org/10.1117/12.961808
Photographic films are used in conjunction with many of the X-ray diagnostics deployed on experiments performed by AWE at their HELEN laser and in collaborative experiments at the LLNL NOVA laser; for many applications the detailed response of the film being used is required. A Perkin-Elmer Micro-10 microdensitometer, with semi-specular optics, is currently employed to digitise these image data prior to further processing and analysis. At present the favoured film for applications where high sensitivity is required is KODAK Direct Exposure Film (DEF). Detailed characterisation of this film, in the optical density range 0 - 3, along with simple analytical models to predict its response, have been reported by workers at other laboratories. Radiographs obtained during the AWE experiments, particularly at the NOVA laser, routinely include optical densities of 5, occasionally reaching above density 6. In order to allow quantitative information to be extracted from these radiographs a characterisation at three energy points in the range 1 - 5 keV has been performed at the AWE X-ray calibration facility EXCALIBUR. These results are presented along with fits to the analytical model presented by Henke et al in Reference 1. The Henke model was used to generate a detailed response curve at a photon energy of 2.5 keV in order to analyse an experimental radiograph from the NOVA laser. The effect of the shape of the response curve on the quantities being measured is demonstrated.
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Michael R. Garcia, Jon H Chappell, Stephen S. Murray, W. Bruce Feller, George W. Fraser
Proceedings Volume X-Ray Instrumentation in Medicine and Biology, Plasma Physics, Astrophysics, and Synchrotron Radiation, (1989) https://doi.org/10.1117/12.961809
The dominant source of internal background in microchannel plate detectors is thought to be due to trace amount of ra-dioisotopes in the detector glass which decay through β-processes. Several manufacturers have begun programs to produce lead glass with greatly reduced amounts of radioisotopes in order to fabricate microchannel plates with lower internal background counting rates. Our laboratory measurements of such plates show that the background rates are substantially lower than in standard microchannel plates. The remaining background rate is consistent with the sum of the rates due to the residual trace level of radioisotopes, cosmic ray interactions in the microchannel plates, and a third, previously unrecognized component which is likely due to MeV γ-rays emitted by the laboratory concrete walls. We discuss the implications the measured background rates have for the sensitivity of the High Resolution Camera (HRC) to be flown on the U.S. Advanced X-ray Astrophysics Facility (AXAF). We compare these predicted rates with those measured in the High Resolution Imager (HRI) which was flown on the Einstein X-ray astronomy observatory.
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O. H. W. Siegmund, J. V. Vallerga, D. E. Everman, J. Hull
Proceedings Volume X-Ray Instrumentation in Medicine and Biology, Plasma Physics, Astrophysics, and Synchrotron Radiation, (1989) https://doi.org/10.1117/12.961810
We have examined the long term performance of two prototype microchannel plate (MCP) detectors built for the Extreme Ultraviolet Explorer mission. The detectors were subjected to an extended test sequence, encompassing preconditioning, evaluation of operating characteristics, and a period of extended operation with regular re-evaluations. Our results show that under vacuum storage conditions the MCP performance characteristics remain stable for several years, provided preconditioning has been performed. We also find that for extended periods of detector operation the MCP gain gradually declines. The extent of gain decline is found to be directly related to the level of charge extracted from the MCP's. The MCP intrinsic background event rate is also found to decrease with time under vacuum, and with increasing extracted charge. In part, the latter is related to a decrease in the activity of MCP hot spots.
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Richard B. Hoover, Arthur B. C. Walker Jr., Joakim F. Lindblom, Troy W. Barbee Jr., Richard A VanPatten, John P. Gill, Forbes Powell, Gordon Steele
Proceedings Volume X-Ray Instrumentation in Medicine and Biology, Plasma Physics, Astrophysics, and Synchrotron Radiation, (1989) https://doi.org/10.1117/12.961811
The first high resolution soft X-ray/EUV images of the Sun with normal incidence multilayer optics were obtained by the Stanford/MSFC Rocket X-Ray Spectroheliograph on October 23, 1987. Numerous images at selected wavelengths from 8 Å to 256 Å were obtained simultaneously by a diverse array of telescopes onboard. These telescopes included single reflection normal incidence multilayer systems (Herschelian), double reflection multilayer systems (Cassegrain), a grazing incidence mirror system (Wolter Schwarzschild), and Spectral Slicing systems using normal incidence multilayer optics in conjunction with the grazing incidence primary (Wolter-Cassegrain). Filters comprised of 1640 - 1720 Å aluminum supported on a nickel mesh were used to transmit the soft X-Ray/EUV radiation while preventing the intense visible light emission of the Sun from fogging the sensitive experimental T-grain photographic emulsions. These systems yielded high resolution soft x-ray/EUV images of the solar corona and transition region, which reveal magnetically confined loops of hot solar plasma, coronal plumes, polar coronal holes, supergranulation, and features associated with overlying cool prominences.
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Proceedings Volume X-Ray Instrumentation in Medicine and Biology, Plasma Physics, Astrophysics, and Synchrotron Radiation, (1989) https://doi.org/10.1117/12.961812
Silicon photodiodes having practically no carrier recombination at the Si-SiO2 interface or in the front diffused region have been developed by defect-free n-type impurity diffusion into p-type silicon. These photodiodes exhibit very high quantum efficiencies in the 10 eV to 150 eV photon energy region, typically 37 electrons per photon at 150 eV, which is about 300 times the quantum efficiency of the more commonly used photoemissive type soft X-ray detectors. The quantum efficiency of the developed diodes has been found to be stable to a few percent after exposure to photons in the region of 5eV to 200eV, with fluences in excess of 1014/cm2. No significant change in the quantum efficiency was observed after storage in air for several months.
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R. Holz, J. Eberle, R. Lebert, W. Neff, F. Richter
Proceedings Volume X-Ray Instrumentation in Medicine and Biology, Plasma Physics, Astrophysics, and Synchrotron Radiation, (1989) https://doi.org/10.1117/12.961813
The radiation characteristics of a plasma focus operated with nitrogen is investigated. To optimize this source at a particular wavelength with respect to its application in X-ray microscopy, several diagnostic methods are applied to measure the emitted radiation with temporal, spectral and spatial resolution. A well suited diagnostic technique is the imaging of the source by means of a condenser zone plate.
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Proceedings Volume X-Ray Instrumentation in Medicine and Biology, Plasma Physics, Astrophysics, and Synchrotron Radiation, (1989) https://doi.org/10.1117/12.961814
THOMSON-CSF is developing thinned CCDs for backside illumination which will provide high quantum efficiency for the detection of UV, soft X-ray and electrons of a few keV. The most critical stage of the process is the backside treatment of the thinned devices : accumulation condition is necessary to prevent recombination of the photoelectrons created near the back surface. The backside process developed at THOMSON-CSF involves a shallow p+ implantation activated by laser annealing. Results obtained on thinned frame-transfer CCDs (576 x 384 Pixels) are presented : a quantum efficiency of 50% at 3500 Å (25°C) and in excess of 60% in the range 4000 Å - 6500 Å (25°C) without antireflection coating. Preliminary results with VUV and soft X-ray are also given.
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Proceedings Volume X-Ray Instrumentation in Medicine and Biology, Plasma Physics, Astrophysics, and Synchrotron Radiation, (1989) https://doi.org/10.1117/12.961815
A tri-dimensional microimaging system was developed for X-rays emitted by laser induced plasmas. It uses a multislit coding mask and linear CCD detectors perpendicular to each slit, in order to provide real time 3-D imaging. However, the aperture upon the object is too small to expect a very good separation in depth ; but improvement can be brought by using simultaneously two such multi-slit cameras in different directions of space. Numerical simulations already show the interest of this double coding.
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P. Fessler, L. Lavergne-Gosselin, M. Lemonnier, L. Stab, P. Bondot
Proceedings Volume X-Ray Instrumentation in Medicine and Biology, Plasma Physics, Astrophysics, and Synchrotron Radiation, (1989) https://doi.org/10.1117/12.961816
The silicon PN junction offers some advantages in contrast with ion chamber ; high quantum efficiency, very large dynamic range, good linearity, vacuum and cryogenically compatibility. This in particular in experiments using synchrotron radiation such EXAFS in absorption or in fluorescence mode. We use a 30 μm thin ion implanted and passivated silicon detector as a beam monitor and another planar diode of 200 μm to measure the photon flux behind the sample. These two detectors are working in the photovoltaic mode at room temperature. Currents are amplified in a low input impedance current preamplifier and are typically ten times greater than with an ion chamber for the same absorption. Thus the contribution of the electronic to the total noise is significantly less compared to the other system and faster rise time become possible. We have done in particular the copper foil EXAFS in 1 minute against 15 minutes in the conventional step by step mode.
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M. Finkenthal, S. Lippmann, H. W. Moos, P. Mandelbaum
Proceedings Volume X-Ray Instrumentation in Medicine and Biology, Plasma Physics, Astrophysics, and Synchrotron Radiation, (1989) https://doi.org/10.1117/12.961818
Au, 11, Pb and Bi spectra emitted from high temperature, Te ~ 1 keV, Texas Experimental Tokamak (TEXT) plasmas have been recorded and analyzed in the 30-50 Å range. Narrow (5-10 Å) and bright quasi-continuous bands originating from 4d104fn-4d94fn+1 transitions are emitted below 44 Å by these atoms 25 to 35 times ionized. If laser produced plasmas would be optimized for this emission, the bands could represent bright sources to be used for soft x-ray microscopy in the water window.
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Proceedings Volume X-Ray Instrumentation in Medicine and Biology, Plasma Physics, Astrophysics, and Synchrotron Radiation, (1989) https://doi.org/10.1117/12.961819
An imaging-plate X-ray area detector which utilizes photostimulable phosphor (Ba FBr: Eu2+) originally developed for diagnostic radiography, has a detective quantum efficiency of more than 80 % for 8 ~ 20 keV X-rays, a 1:105 dynamic range, a spatial resolution of 150 μm full width at half maximum and no instantaneous count-rate limitation. A readout system for imaging plates has been developed for the purpose of X-ray diffraction studies by modifying a drum-type densitometer. Two apparatus for time-resolved measurements have also been developed. The first one is based on a cinema method which permits 40 exposures of a two dimensional X-ray pattern (100 mm x 108 mm) with a 0.3 s time resolution. The second one works as a 200 mm-long linear detector which enables a time resolution of 23 μs for a duration of 46 ms, based on a streak-camera method.
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Proceedings Volume X-Ray Instrumentation in Medicine and Biology, Plasma Physics, Astrophysics, and Synchrotron Radiation, (1989) https://doi.org/10.1117/12.961820
In this paper we discuss some aspects of x-ray gain measurements using spectroscopic diagnostics. The x-ray amplifying media are generally hot and dense laser-produced-plasma columns with very large transverse density gradients. The questions of line broadening and radiative transfer will be pointed out.
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Nathalie Tragin, Jean-Paul Geindre, Claude Chenais-Popovics, Jean-Claude Gauthier, M. Klapisch
Proceedings Volume X-Ray Instrumentation in Medicine and Biology, Plasma Physics, Astrophysics, and Synchrotron Radiation, (1989) https://doi.org/10.1117/12.961821
The spectra of multicharged ions produced by laser irradiation of high-Z materials have been obtained for a large number of elements at the LULI laser facility using 0.53 μm laser wavelength and 1013-1015 W/cm2 laser intensities. Measurements of the electron density and temperature have been performed in laser-irradiated gold targets using Stark broadening and relative intensities of H-like and He-like lines of aluminum mixed in gold with various dilutions. Gold transition array intensities were found in good agreement with the results of a detailed collisional-radiative model of Ni-like ion emission. A study of the position and intensity of the emission regions of He-like and H-like (Al) and Ni-like (Au) ions with increasing gold percentage show a steepening of the electron temperature gradient in agreement with 1D hydrocode calculations including radiation transport physics.
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Proceedings Volume X-Ray Instrumentation in Medicine and Biology, Plasma Physics, Astrophysics, and Synchrotron Radiation, (1989) https://doi.org/10.1117/12.961822
Various aplanetic devices fitted with spherical or aspherical holographic gratings are described. Basic conditions for aplanetism are first expressed, the object, image and recording point sources being located on circles centered on the grating tangent. Finally some imaging configurations, monochromator and flat field spectrometer are described.
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Proceedings Volume X-Ray Instrumentation in Medicine and Biology, Plasma Physics, Astrophysics, and Synchrotron Radiation, (1989) https://doi.org/10.1117/12.961823
Soft X-ray contact microscopy was applied to human chromosomes. Chromosomes of human lymphocytes were spread on a clean surface of distilled water, attached on a X-ray resist, polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA), and dried with no fixatives. The specimens were exposed without staining to the 2.98 nm monochromatic undulator radiation at the Photon Factory, National Laboratory for High Energy Physics, Japan. The developed images on PMMA were observed either with differential interference optical microscope or with transmission electron microscope by the use of replica method with a plasma polymerization-film in a glow discharge. The results showed that soft X-ray contact microscopy visualized chromosomes with the contrast produced by their components themselves at high resolution. The images were composed of highly entangled parts and stretched portions. From the stretched portions, particle like structures were recognized in a chromosomal fiber. The minimum size observed was 10-20 nm of fibers with 20-40 nm particles. Three dimensional observation will reveal the structure of highly entangled parts. The present results suggest the big potential of X-ray microscopy in biology.
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A. C. Thompson, E. Rubenstein, R. S. Kernoff, H. Zeman, N. Gmur, W. Thomlinson, R. Hofstadter, J. C. Giacomini, H. J. Gordon, et al.
Proceedings Volume X-Ray Instrumentation in Medicine and Biology, Plasma Physics, Astrophysics, and Synchrotron Radiation, (1989) https://doi.org/10.1117/12.961824
The tunable energy, high intensity and high collimation of X-ray beams from synchrotron radiation sources may provide a less invasive method to acquire images of human coronary arteries. Currently the standard imaging procedure is dangerous since it requires that a catheter be inserted into a peripheral artery and threaded up to the heart so that a contrast agent can be injected directly into the artery being imaged. Using a pair of X-ray images taken with monochromatized X-ray beams from a synchrotron, it may be possible to use a much safer venous injection of a contrast agent and still have sufficient image contrast to visualize the coronary arteries. The energies of the beams are arranged to bracket the iodine K absorption edge where the iodine absorption cross section jumps by a factor of six. The logarithmic difference image has excellent sensitivity to contrast agent and minimal sensitivity to tissue and bone. A new imaging system has been built that uses a dual beam monochromator and dual array detector. Two sets of transvenous arterial images have been acquired with it of a patient with severe coronary artery disease.
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Proceedings Volume X-Ray Instrumentation in Medicine and Biology, Plasma Physics, Astrophysics, and Synchrotron Radiation, (1989) https://doi.org/10.1117/12.961825
A compact X-ray ring of about 13 m diameter with two multipole 12-T superconducting wigglers is proposed as 34-keV photon sources for Didital Subtraction Angiography (DSA) of the hospital scale making use of the electron undulating method which allows a uniform wide-area exposure of human heart to 34-keV photons. The whole facility including the 1.5-GeV compact conventional type ring of triplet-achromat type lattice, two compact wigglers, two short beam lines (several meters long), and a short electron injector can be installed in a space of about 30 m square. A twenty cycle expansion of the exposed area of 33~ 34 keV photons to human heart is most effectively achieved by the combination of the electron undulating method and the asymmetric crystal diffraction method. A photon fluence rate of more than 2.4x 1014 photons/s with a 0.1% photon energy spread can be expected for a horizontal opening angle of 10 mrad, at a stored beam current of 0.5 A, by using a wiggler consisting of three magnets plus two magnets of half the deflection on either end of the wiggler.
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Proceedings Volume X-Ray Instrumentation in Medicine and Biology, Plasma Physics, Astrophysics, and Synchrotron Radiation, (1989) https://doi.org/10.1117/12.961826
Development of high-quality X-ray lenses, grazing and normal incidence mirrors, during the last decade, gives hope that soon it would be possible to control soft X-ray, as is made now for more longwave radiation. Although X-ray optics is making now only its first steps on the way which had already been passed by the visible optics, it gives many unique possibilities for different branches of science and technology. A synchrotron is the most powerful source of soft X-ray radiation, but plasma point sources (micropinch, laser produced plasma etc.) are significantly cheaper and more suitable for wide laboratory applications. Besides, some of these sources appear to be interesting objects for investigation. Therefore, X-ray optical devices for point sources may be divided into three types: (1) devices for a special utilization of soft X-ray radiation of the sources, (2) concentrators which may be used for different purposes, (3) devices for plasma diagnostics of the sources. An additional class of devices is used in facilities for testing and calibration of X-ray optical elements. Some examples of X-ray optical devices belonging to these types will be considered in this paper. One of the schemes for measuring of spherical mirror reflectivity using X-ray radiation of laser produced plasma is presented in Fig. 1.
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Proceedings Volume X-Ray Instrumentation in Medicine and Biology, Plasma Physics, Astrophysics, and Synchrotron Radiation, (1989) https://doi.org/10.1117/12.961827
A reflectometer has been set up at the radiometric laboratory of the Physikalisch-Technische Bundesanstalt at the electron storage ring BESSY. The reflectometer is used in connection with a toroidal grating monochromator and operates primarily in the wavelength range from 5 nm to 40 nm. The instrumentation is described and examples are given for the characterization of multilayer mirrors and transmission gratings.
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Proceedings Volume X-Ray Instrumentation in Medicine and Biology, Plasma Physics, Astrophysics, and Synchrotron Radiation, (1989) https://doi.org/10.1117/12.961828
Techniques for the detection of soft x-ray images are discussed. Specific needs for gray level detection are considered. A camera system using a COD sensor, which meets the needs for soft x-ray image detection is presented, and x-ray microscope images, taken with this camera are presented.
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F. O'Neill, I. C. E. Turcu, G. J. Tallents, J. Dickerson, T. Lindsay, D. T. Goodhead, A. Stretch, C. W. Wharton, R. A. Meldrum
Proceedings Volume X-Ray Instrumentation in Medicine and Biology, Plasma Physics, Astrophysics, and Synchrotron Radiation, (1989) https://doi.org/10.1117/12.961829
A KrF laser-based repetitively pulsed (5 Hz) plasma X-ray source producing photons at hυ≈0.85 keV (iron, L-shell) from a precision steel rotating target has been developed. This source has been used for exposures of several minutes duration to study soft X-ray induced cell killing and DNA damage effects in cultured Chinese hamster cells. To minimise the debris from the laser plasma source the target chamber contained helium at 300 torr with a slow flow. The biological material was exposed outside the target chamber by X-rays emerging through a beryllium vacuum window into a helium-filled beam-line. The results showed that the source was very effective at killing V79 cells and at inducing DNA damage in V79 cells but not in AA8 cells.
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Proceedings Volume X-Ray Instrumentation in Medicine and Biology, Plasma Physics, Astrophysics, and Synchrotron Radiation, (1989) https://doi.org/10.1117/12.961830
To use time resolved X-UV imaging and deduce quantitative results, one needs a calibration of the instruments, in our case X-UV microscopes and X-ray streak camera photocathodes. In a first part, we present the laser used to create the X-ray source. In a second part, we give briefly the caracteristics of the source. Finally, the methods of relative calibration using X-ray photodiodes are presented. We discuss the association of multilayered mirrors and thin foil filters in order to maintain the reflectivity of the system inside the specific reflectivity of the mirrors. In conclusion, we present the different uses of this plasma source.
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Proceedings Volume X-Ray Instrumentation in Medicine and Biology, Plasma Physics, Astrophysics, and Synchrotron Radiation, (1989) https://doi.org/10.1117/12.961831
Carbon transmission gratings with line densities in the range 7000-17500 lines/mm have been made, by contamina-tion lithography, on thin boron nitride (80 nm) or carbon (25-35 nm) substrates. The efficiencies of these gratings in the water-window wavelength range can be enhanced by coating with metal (preferably nickel, chromium or copper) at an angle; a model used to calculate the optimum coating angles and thicknesses is presented. Calculated optimum efficiencies (including phase effects) vary considerably over the spectral range investigated but can approach 20% in the first order. A preliminary characterisation of the gratings has been carried out in the radiometric laboratory of the PTB at BESSY, Berlin. It is intended to use the gratings in the study of laser-produced plasmas.
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Proceedings Volume X-Ray Instrumentation in Medicine and Biology, Plasma Physics, Astrophysics, and Synchrotron Radiation, (1989) https://doi.org/10.1117/12.961832
We report on the absolute efficiency of x-ray phosphor screens made of various materials commonly used in the x-ray applications (ZnCdS:Ag - Y2O2S:Tb Gd2O2S:Tb). All the measurements have been carried out under fluoroscopy conditions for tube voltages ranging from 50kV to 250kV and for screen weights ranging from 15mg/cm2 to 200mg/cm2. There is also, for comparison, a set of results concerning the behaviour of the screens under soft x-rays (20kV to 50kV) excitation. All the experimental results are discussed on the basis of a uniform screen model and analytical expressions are presented permitting the theoretical calculation of the absolute efficiency of the screens.
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Hyo-gun Kim, Ping-Chin Cheng, Mark D. Wittman, Hong-Jin Kong
Proceedings Volume X-Ray Instrumentation in Medicine and Biology, Plasma Physics, Astrophysics, and Synchrotron Radiation, (1989) https://doi.org/10.1117/12.961833
The laser-produced plasma as an x-ray source provides significant advantages over other types of sources for x-ray microscopy of, particularly, living biological specimens. The pulsed nature of the x-rays enables imaging of the specimen in a living state, and the small source size minimizes penumbral blurring, thus making it possible to make an exposure close to the source, thereby, increasing the x-ray flux. Silica depositions, in the form of SiO2•H20, in the leaf blade of corn have been imaged using a laser-produced plasma source. The study of these silica deposits in various developmental stages reveals that silica is initially deposited in specialized dumb-bell shaped silica cells and further deposition occurs in the bullaform cells and hairs. Such studies have not been possible with conventional methods which require ashing and staining of the specimens. Furthermore, x-ray imaging enables the screening of the silica content in a large number of specimens, which is a requirement for breeding programs.
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Proceedings Volume X-Ray Instrumentation in Medicine and Biology, Plasma Physics, Astrophysics, and Synchrotron Radiation, (1989) https://doi.org/10.1117/12.961834
In this contribution we describe "ultimates" monochromators in which the focusing is achieved by a toroidal mirror of unit magnification, and the dispersion of the radiation by a simple rotation of a plane type V holographic grating working at a -1 magnification. Opto-mechanical design of a stigmatic comas balanced device will be described. Advantages of such configurations (fixed beam divergences) for plasmas diagnostics and synchrotrons (SA23 Super Aco beam line in collaboration with M.C. Castex and the Molecular Group of LURE) will be outlined.
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Proceedings Volume X-Ray Instrumentation in Medicine and Biology, Plasma Physics, Astrophysics, and Synchrotron Radiation, (1989) https://doi.org/10.1117/12.961835
Two novel soft X-ray diagnostics for magnetically confined plasma spectroscopy are proposed and discussed. Both will'use layered synthetic microstructure coated surfaces, including flat or curved gratings, as dispersive elements. The high near normal incidence reflectivities of these elements, enable the construction of near normal incidence soft X-ray spectrometers and narrow band filters for radiative power loss estimates and plasma fluctuation measurements in the hot central core of magnetically confined plasmas.
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Antoine Carillon, Pierre Dhez, Bernard Gauthe, Pierre Jaegle, Gerard Jamelot, Annie Klisnick, Jean-Claude Lagron
Proceedings Volume X-Ray Instrumentation in Medicine and Biology, Plasma Physics, Astrophysics, and Synchrotron Radiation, (1989) https://doi.org/10.1117/12.961836
Description of a new experimental set-up developed in Palaiseau for X-ray laser studies is given. This appliance includes a spherical multilayer mirror put at the rear of the 6 cm long laser generated aluminium plasma and two original devices. Those consist of a grazing incidence spectrometer where detector is on the focal circle and moves linearly with the wavelength range and a divergence analyzer. Both devices are extensively described.
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R. Lebert, J. Eberle, R. Holz, W. Neff, F. Richter
Proceedings Volume X-Ray Instrumentation in Medicine and Biology, Plasma Physics, Astrophysics, and Synchrotron Radiation, (1989) https://doi.org/10.1117/12.961837
Plasma focus devices are capable of producing dense high Z plasmas with a lifetime of about 10 ns by shock compression. Spectral, temporal and spatial characteristics of the emitting plasma are reported. Results are presented and compared to scaling laws. Soft x-ray emission from these plasmas are of special interest for several applications. Investigation of the x-ray emission spectra show that nitrogen and neon are fully ionized, argon becomes heliumlike and krypton neonlike. The diameter of the emitting region depends on the atomic number of the gas. Maximum spectral brightness is achieved by resonance lin s.
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Proceedings Volume X-Ray Instrumentation in Medicine and Biology, Plasma Physics, Astrophysics, and Synchrotron Radiation, (1989) https://doi.org/10.1117/12.961838
Over the past few years microscopic imaging using X rays has been made feasible by developments in synchrotron radia-tion sources and in techniques for manufacturing X-ray optical components. However, it is clear that X-ray microscopes will not become widely available instruments if they have to rely on synchrotron radiation sources. Conventional X-ray generators give insufficient intensities to allow imaging in reasonable times, but recent work on laser-generated plasmas has shown that they can give intense bursts of X rays. In this paper the laser-generated plasma source requirements for two types of imaging, contact microradiography and scanning transmission X-ray microscopy, are discussed, with particular reference to the use of small commercially available lasers. It is demonstrated that such lasers could be of use, particularly for scanning X-ray microscopes, but that it is unlikely they will be capable of completely replacing synchrotrons as sources for X-ray microscopy.
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Y. Cauchois, R. Kherouf, C. Senemaud, J. Thirion, C. Bruno, J. Chevallier
Proceedings Volume X-Ray Instrumentation in Medicine and Biology, Plasma Physics, Astrophysics, and Synchrotron Radiation, (1989) https://doi.org/10.1117/12.961839
In this paper we describe experiments performed with various curved-crystal techniques. From Bragg reflection along the convex side of a fixed crystal curved under a small radius, it is possible to observe simultaneously a wide spectrum of a limited X-ray source. Spectra from exploded wires and gas puffs obtained by this technique are presented. Bragg reflection on curved-crystal can also provide X-ray images when laws of ordinary optics are satisfied; experiments in the low energy range are described.
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P. A. Rosen, P. Fieldhouse, J. C. V. Hansom, K. Oades, T. J. Goldsack, R. E. Powell, J. Read
Proceedings Volume X-Ray Instrumentation in Medicine and Biology, Plasma Physics, Astrophysics, and Synchrotron Radiation, (1989) https://doi.org/10.1117/12.961840
Point Projection Spectroscopy (PPSY is now well established as the principal diagnostic of the Planar Foil Mix Experiment on the HELEN laser at AWE. In this experiment measurements of hydrodynamic mix are made on a radiatively driven package comprising an ablator,foil and tamper. A separate laser beam is used to produce a point source of X-rays to backlight the package a few nanoseconds after the main drive pulse. The X-rays are diffracted from a suitable Bragg crystal onto a piece of film which is subsequently developed, digitised and the data processed using a computer analysis code. Results of this single-frame technique are presented. A recent development has been to split the backlighter beam into two separately focussable halves enabling two frames of information to be obtained along orthogonal lines-of-sight on each shot. The frames can be separated in time to give the temporal evolution of the package, or taken in coincidence to give two measurements simultaneously.
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Proceedings Volume X-Ray Instrumentation in Medicine and Biology, Plasma Physics, Astrophysics, and Synchrotron Radiation, (1989) https://doi.org/10.1117/12.961841
A review on state of the art fabrication and test methods for grazing incidence X-ray optics is given with the main emphasis on optics used in synchrotron radiation beam lines. Key topics to be discussed are: Substrate materials, dimensions, properties, surface characteristics. Steps in manufacturing and polishing of aspherical elements. Special problems of manufacturing aspherical elements versus manufacturing spherical elements. Test methods and available testing facilities. Influence of form, surface finish and tolerance on manufacturing complexity.
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Proceedings Volume X-Ray Instrumentation in Medicine and Biology, Plasma Physics, Astrophysics, and Synchrotron Radiation, (1989) https://doi.org/10.1117/12.961842
We describe the implementation of the source models used by SHADOW, our X-ray optics ray tracing code. The statistical nature of the models is discussed in detail and some relevant examples presented. The program can now model all the types of sources encountered in synchrotron radiation, that is bending magnets, wigglers bnd undulators with full inclusion of emittance effects.
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Proceedings Volume X-Ray Instrumentation in Medicine and Biology, Plasma Physics, Astrophysics, and Synchrotron Radiation, (1989) https://doi.org/10.1117/12.961843
In the last years the interest in high throughput focusing x-ray optics has been increasing rather rapidly. High photon collecting power is the most important requirement in scientific investigations that require for example measurement of line emission and temporal behavior of sources. Generally this type of observations need 10 time or more photons than source detection and position. Because of the operation at grazing incidence an high throughput x-ray telescope requires to be composed of a large number of nested confocal mirrors. To reduce the losses imposed by the obstruction of the mirrors wall and to keep the weight of the optical system within acceptables values, the thickness of the mirrors must be very thin. Nevertheless the angular resolution of the optics must be of a good standard (better than 1 min. of arc) in order to avoid sources confusion. The techniques of replicating the mirror shells from masters are capable to produce x-ray optics in accordance with the above mentioned requirements. The method of epoxy replication will be briefly reviewed in the paper while the technique of replica by electroforming will be discussed in more details, underlining the possibility of using more elaborated electroforming processes for the manufacture of light weight large aperture x-ray optics.
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K. A. Tanaka, H. Aritome, T. Kanabe, M. Nakatsuka, T. Yamanaka, S. Nakai
Proceedings Volume X-Ray Instrumentation in Medicine and Biology, Plasma Physics, Astrophysics, and Synchrotron Radiation, (1989) https://doi.org/10.1117/12.961844
Laser plasma is a unique source of high brightness ( > 1010 W/cm2) and pulsive ( <10-9 sec. ) x rays. X-ray spectrum and intensity can be controlled by carefully choosing various experimental parameters such as laser wavelength, target material, and laser pulse width. These detailed knowledge of laser plasma x rays (LAPLAX) may be used for many applications. X-ray lithography is one such example, which is to achieve less than a few thousand Å spatial resolution. Making use of LAPLAX,we propose a conceptual design of an x-ray lithography system.
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I. Toubhans, R Fabbro, J. C. Gauthier, M. Chaker, H. Pepin
Proceedings Volume X-Ray Instrumentation in Medicine and Biology, Plasma Physics, Astrophysics, and Synchrotron Radiation, (1989) https://doi.org/10.1117/12.961845
Laser produced plasmas have shown to be extremely bright sources of soft X-ray emission with many applications in research and industry. They can provide useful X-ray radiation from 0.1 keV to 5 keV. However, the conversion efficiency in a given X-ray energy range depends on the laser and target parameters. Previous studies have shown the influence of target atomic number and laser intensity at 1.06 μm and 0.26 μm on X-ray conversion efficiency. In this paper, we present the evolution of the conversion efficiency as a function of different parameters such as laser wavelength, pulse duration and pulse shape. Experimental results are compared with theoretical calculations obtained with an hydrodynamic code including radiation transport. We have studied separately the X-ray emission-in the subkeV (0.1-0.75 keV) and in the keV (0.75-2 keV) range. For example, the subkeV emission is relevant to X-ray microscopy since it falls within the so-called "water window" which corresponds to wavelengths between the oxygen and carbon K-edges (23-44 Å). For X-ray lithography, keV X-rays are more appropriate than subkeV X-rays since they allow greater transmission through mask substrates. Moreover, they produce less diffraction effect on proximity printing.
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Proceedings Volume X-Ray Instrumentation in Medicine and Biology, Plasma Physics, Astrophysics, and Synchrotron Radiation, (1989) https://doi.org/10.1117/12.961846
Photoresists are presently the best re-cording media for X-ray holography. However, they usually have a non-linear response to illumination. Preexposure has proven an efficient means of linearizing the resists response, but other causes of non-linearity remain, especially when the resist hologram is optically reconstructed and processed as a phase hologram. The image contrast is also affected in that case, and the direct optical processing of a Gabor hologram gives an image of the object phase component. The amplitude component, which doesn't appear directly, can be recovered by phase contrast techniques.
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Proceedings Volume X-Ray Instrumentation in Medicine and Biology, Plasma Physics, Astrophysics, and Synchrotron Radiation, (1989) https://doi.org/10.1117/12.961847
Transmission gratings have become increasingly important in x-ray astronomy. Gratings were used on the Einstein Observatory and EXOSAT, and they are planned for SPEKTROSAT and AXAF. Gratings with ruling densities as high as 5000 1/mm have been developed at MIT for the AXAF 'High Energy Transmission Grating' (HETG). This grating operates over the range 0.4-8 key with a resolving power of 100-1000. At MPI we concentrate on the development of gratings with moderate line densities (1000-2000 1/mm) but very high optical performance. The first diffraction order efficiency is very close to the theoretical optimum, even orders are suppressed by a proper adjustment of the wire-slit ratio. Spectral resolving power of several thousands can be achieved due to the very precise mechanical ruling and replication process, which has been developed by a commercial manufacturer, the Dr. Johannes Heidenhain GmbH. The grating is freestanding, self-supported by a coarse grid, which obstructs only 20% of the whole area, but enables the grating to withstand the enormous acoustic loads during a rocket launch. A 1000 1/mm grating will be supplied in collaboration with the Laboratory for Space Research at Utrecht for AXAF ('Low Energy Transmission Grating', LETG). The LETG will cover the low energy range down to 80 eV.
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G. Conti, G. Bonelli, E. Mattaini, E. Santambrogio, O. Citterio, H. Brauninger, W. Burkert
Proceedings Volume X-Ray Instrumentation in Medicine and Biology, Plasma Physics, Astrophysics, and Synchrotron Radiation, (1989) https://doi.org/10.1117/12.961848
The replica technique by electroforming the mirrors from mandrels, has been chosen for the manufacture of the X-ray optics of the SAX imaging concentrators. This technique ia also emerging as a promising cost-effective process for the construction of the mirror shells for high throughput X-ray optics telescopes with angular resolution of tens of arcsac. A key point in this process is the manufacture of the mandrels (or masters) with the required specifications for the geometrical profile and surface finishing. Possible cost-effective solutions for the production of the mandrels are: 1) to achieve the required profile by diamond turning and to improve the surface finishing by means of a lacquer coating process or 2) to reach the correct geometrical shape with a conventional lathe or grinding machine and, after a moderate surface polishing, to coat it with a lacquer layer. This paper presents the results obtained during the verification of these approaches.
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Proceedings Volume X-Ray Instrumentation in Medicine and Biology, Plasma Physics, Astrophysics, and Synchrotron Radiation, (1989) https://doi.org/10.1117/12.961849
Actual flat field spectrometers suffer from a large amount of defect of focus. This is due to the fact that the object is actually located on the tangential focus, the detector being on the sagittal one. This is not the case if both the source and the detector are on the perpendicular to the grating normal at the sagittal curvature center. Astigmatism, sagittal coma and astigmatism vanish for any wavelengths, aplanetic solutions occurring for cylindrical (i = 73°39), spherical (i = 9°45) or toroidal (i = 28°5) gratings.
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M. Skowronek, P. P. Rcmeas, J. Larour, J-M. Andre, C. Bonnelle
Proceedings Volume X-Ray Instrumentation in Medicine and Biology, Plasma Physics, Astrophysics, and Synchrotron Radiation, (1989) https://doi.org/10.1117/12.961850
A small source, based on a hollow cathode vacuum discharge, produces nanosecond X-ray pulses, with a stored electrical energy less than 1 Joule. Previous measurements have shown that the emitting region is of small size (< 50 μm) and very reproducible in position (δ1 < 50 μm). This type of discharge creates a powerful beam of electrons coming from the hollow cathode plasma. Two different and successive emission mechanisms exist: a beam-target one from trigger plasma and a beam-plasma interaction during the breakdown phase. The spatial distribution is imaged using a highly sensitive camera.
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J. Susini, C. Khan Malek, A. Madouri, M. Ouahabi, R. Rivoira, J. Bourneix,, R. Barcnewitz
Proceedings Volume X-Ray Instrumentation in Medicine and Biology, Plasma Physics, Astrophysics, and Synchrotron Radiation, (1989) https://doi.org/10.1117/12.961851
Conception, fabrication and characterization of a beamsplitter working in the soft X-ray range at oblique incidence are presented. A large area beamsplitter is fabricated using microfabrication technology and an inorganic film carrier. Reflectivity and transmission results are compared with calculations.
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F. Bridou, J. P. Chauvineau, J. C. Manville, J. P. Marioge, G. Tissot, L. Valiergue
Proceedings Volume X-Ray Instrumentation in Medicine and Biology, Plasma Physics, Astrophysics, and Synchrotron Radiation, (1989) https://doi.org/10.1117/12.961852
In order to obtain laser plasmas images in the X-UV range, we have made three geometrically identical optics, each coated with a multilayer adapted to a given waveband.
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Proceedings Volume X-Ray Instrumentation in Medicine and Biology, Plasma Physics, Astrophysics, and Synchrotron Radiation, (1989) https://doi.org/10.1117/12.961853
The theoretical performances of the optical reconstruction of x-ray in-line Gabor holograms were already investigated, proving full aberration correction possibility at high numerical aperture. Implementation in the near UV domain (240 nm) should allow a final resolution as good as .1μm. We investigate the wavefront properties for the two corrected reconstruction schemes previously derived, in the scope of the lens design. The performances of the reconstruction process are discussed with respect to field correction and parasitic signal rejection.
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Proceedings Volume X-Ray Instrumentation in Medicine and Biology, Plasma Physics, Astrophysics, and Synchrotron Radiation, (1989) https://doi.org/10.1117/12.961854
Described are successive gated x-ray images of laser irradiated pellet targets with a time -resolution as fast as 100 psec. The microchannel gating technique in a stripline configuration is applied to tandem microchannel plates. The gated images are acquired by an electrically cooled CCD camera and are accumulated in a personal computer for data processing. Computerized images of imploding shell targets on the GEKKO XII laser system is presented.
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Proceedings Volume X-Ray Instrumentation in Medicine and Biology, Plasma Physics, Astrophysics, and Synchrotron Radiation, (1989) https://doi.org/10.1117/12.961855
At short wavelengths (λ - 5nm) a highly reflecting multilayer must consist of a large number of layers, in which the layer interfaces are sharply defined and the strongly absorbing (metal) component layers are as thin as possible. The mininum thickness of a microcrystalline metal layer is apparently set by the unit cell dimensions, the lateral dimensions of each microcrystallite, by the deposition conditions and nature of the metal. The influence of these parameters is described and related to the fabrication of short wavelength reflecting mirrors.
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C. Senemaud, D. Laporte, J. M. Andre, R. Kherouf, P. Paquier, M. Ringuenet
Proceedings Volume X-Ray Instrumentation in Medicine and Biology, Plasma Physics, Astrophysics, and Synchrotron Radiation, (1989) https://doi.org/10.1117/12.961856
A high resolution, curved-crystal spectrometer of compact design is described. It can be adapted to any X-ray source and covers the 0.5 to 10 nm wavelength range. The scanning of spectra is obtained by means of a novel mechanical arrangement using two coaxial rotary stages and a system of rotating arms. (patent nr 86.08871). The step-by-step scanning of spectra is driven by an Apple Ile microcomputer which is also used to perform the data acquisition for X-ray emission, X-ray absorption and isochromat spectra.
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Proceedings Volume X-Ray Instrumentation in Medicine and Biology, Plasma Physics, Astrophysics, and Synchrotron Radiation, (1989) https://doi.org/10.1117/12.961857
The influence of the surface-roughness induced scattering and the subsequent decrease of the specular reflectance is a major problem in designing X-UV optical systems such as grazing incidence mirrors used in imaging telescopes and synchrotron beam lines, or multi-layer structures recently developed as selective reflectors in the X-UV region. In this study, absolute reflectivity measurements are performed at soft-X-ray characte-ristic wavelengths and the effects of surface roughness are evidenced. The angular distri-bution of the reflected/scattered radiation (ADSR) is obtained by keeping the mirror fixed while scanning the detector. The ADSR presents a specular component and a diffuse scattering component (DSC). The DSC reveals characteristic features : side peaks and asymmetry, which can be analysed within the framework of the first-order vector theory of the roughness induced scattering.
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Proceedings Volume X-Ray Instrumentation in Medicine and Biology, Plasma Physics, Astrophysics, and Synchrotron Radiation, (1989) https://doi.org/10.1117/12.961858
Very high energy resolution of x-rays can be achieved by extreme ba,ckreflection ( Bragg angle close to 90° ) from perfect crystals. This technique is used for the instrument INELAX, recently installed at the storage ring of HASYLAB, Hamburg. Inelastic scattering of 13.8 keV x-rays can be performed with the high energy resolution of ΔΕ= (17 ± 2) me.V. First direct measurements of phonon dispersion curves with x-rays were carried out using single crystals of Be and a diamond. The longitudinal phonons were observed in the acoustic and optical range.
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Proceedings Volume X-Ray Instrumentation in Medicine and Biology, Plasma Physics, Astrophysics, and Synchrotron Radiation, (1989) https://doi.org/10.1117/12.961859
Kodak direct exposure film (DEF), and the Kodak Industrex films CX and AX have been compared, using a DC X-ray source to generate 1.5 keV soft X-rays. Characteristic curves are presented for the three films, also detective quantum efficiencies as a function of incident X-ray flux.
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S. D. Moustaizis, M. K. Tatarakis, A. Doukas, D. Charalambidis, Gy. Farkas, Z. Horvath, Cs. Toth
Proceedings Volume X-Ray Instrumentation in Medicine and Biology, Plasma Physics, Astrophysics, and Synchrotron Radiation, (1989) https://doi.org/10.1117/12.961860
The influence of a static electric field on the X-ray plasma emission induced by a picosecond NdYag laser on a Au target has been investigated. The X-ray emisson of the plasma, created by focusing the laser beam down to an intensity of 1014 W/cm2, lies in the region of 1-20keV and was studied as a function of the applied static electric field. A significant increase of the intensity of the X-ray emission is observed at high electric fields (20kV/cm).
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Proceedings Volume X-Ray Instrumentation in Medicine and Biology, Plasma Physics, Astrophysics, and Synchrotron Radiation, (1989) https://doi.org/10.1117/12.961861
The design and preparation of multilayers for X-UV Schwarzschild microscopes for laser created plasmas imaging is described. WRe/Si, Mo/Si, and Rh/C multilayers have been made for imaging at 30.4 nm, 15.5 nm, and 11.4 rim respectively. In order to evaluate the transmission of the optical system, the lateral thickness variation of the multilayers is calculated from the geometrical characteristics of the deposition system. The interface roughness, deduced from the value of the relectivity as a function of thickness measured during the multilayer deposition, is taken into account for the calculation of the multilayer reflectivity.
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Proceedings Volume X-Ray Instrumentation in Medicine and Biology, Plasma Physics, Astrophysics, and Synchrotron Radiation, (1989) https://doi.org/10.1117/12.961862
We have investigated, in a complex plane, the behavior of the Berning's formula for the complex amplitude reflectance of a multilayer to find a theoretical basis for the selection of a proper material pair needed to produce a high-reflectance soft X-ray multilayer. An optical criterion has been derived for the selection of such a pair. The criterion is that in a complex plane the Fresnel reflection coefficients of two materials with respect to vacuum should lie close to the real axis and should be far apart from each other. Some examples are given to illustrate the usefulness of this criterion in the design of multilayers.
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R. E. Somekh, W. C. Shih, K. Dyrbye, K. H. Huang, C. S. Baxter
Proceedings Volume X-Ray Instrumentation in Medicine and Biology, Plasma Physics, Astrophysics, and Synchrotron Radiation, (1989) https://doi.org/10.1117/12.961863
We consider several different types of sputtered metal multilayers from a materials science point of view. By studying different classes of multilayer (single crystal, microcrystalline and amorphous) we aim to show that a broad insight into the relationship of the sputtering conditions to the microstructural features and properties of the multilayers can be developed. Our major objective is to establish the way features of the layers on an atomic scale relate to the sputter deposition conditions and the mobility of the atoms as they are deposited. A number of multilayers are discussed which range over many types of atomic order: from the perfect single crystal multilayers of Cu/Ni and Nb/Ta, through microcrystalline structures of Ti/W to the mixed multilayer of amorphous Si with microcrystalline W and finally the fully amorphous multilayer of NiZr/NiHf. By looking at a series of fundamentally different multilayers all made in the same deposition systems it is hoped to eliminate the problem of deposition system dependent parameters such as base pressures and degrees of control. The main conclusion is that whilst single crystal multilayers rely on thermal energy to maintain flatness, amorphous and microcrystalline multilayers benefit enormously from bombardment by ions and atoms with energies in the region of 30-50eV.
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Proceedings Volume X-Ray Instrumentation in Medicine and Biology, Plasma Physics, Astrophysics, and Synchrotron Radiation, (1989) https://doi.org/10.1117/12.961864
Studies of laser-produced plasmas lead to imagine numerous diagnostics able to make measurements within the X-ray range (10 eV to 10 keV, or so) with a high spatio-temporal resolution. Electronic framing or streak cameras fit very well to that problem ; others fast detectors such as vacuum diodes or photoconductors associated with large bandwidth oscilloscopes allow some measurements, maybe less sharp, but often sufficient, with a less complicated equipment.
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Proceedings Volume X-Ray Instrumentation in Medicine and Biology, Plasma Physics, Astrophysics, and Synchrotron Radiation, (1989) https://doi.org/10.1117/12.961865
Zone plates made by carbon contamination lithography have been successfully used in the King's College/Daresbury scanning X-ray microscope. However, in their original carbon forms these zone plates suffer from low (~ 1%) diffraction efficiencies, while the outermost zone widths of the higher efficiency gold copies made by contact X-ray lithography are limited to about 50 nm, smaller zones becoming unresolvable due to diffraction effects. In this paper it will be shown that, by shadowing a rotating carbon master through an aperture, efficiencies of up to about 20% in the water-window region and approaching 10% at shorter wavelengths are possible, by selecting the shadowing material and by coating at the correct angles and to the correct thicknesses to utilise phase-modulating effects. Calculated tolerances on the rotation and displacement of the zone plate under the aperture indicate that outermost zone widths will be limited only by the capabilities of the contamination lithography process, which has already demonstrated the possibility of better than 20 nm, and not by the accuracies of available rotation and translation devices.
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Proceedings Volume X-Ray Instrumentation in Medicine and Biology, Plasma Physics, Astrophysics, and Synchrotron Radiation, (1989) https://doi.org/10.1117/12.961866
Grazing incidence optics have been in use for quite some time for x-ray applications, including fusion research, synchrotron beam lines and x-ray astronomy. X-ray astronomy in particular has benefitted significantly from the development and performance improvements of large x-ray telescopes. Both high angular resolution and large collecting area are aimed at in the design and manufacturing. The x-ray telescope for the German ROSAT x-ray astronomy satellite mission has been finished and assembled with an unprecedented resolution of 3.3 arcsec for the half energy width of the point spread function and less than 3% scattering. A set of 3 light weight telescopes with an effective collecting area of 700 cm2 at 8 keV per telescope is being developed for the XMM mission of the European Space Agency using a nest of 58 thin wall Wolter type I systems. A review of the design, manufacturing and x-ray optical performance of both the ROSAT and XMM telescopes is presented.
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A. V. Vinogradov, I. A. Artyukov, S. S. Borisova, N. N. Zorev, I. V. Kozhevnikov, I. F. Mikhailov, S. I. Sagitov, A. I. Fedorenko
Proceedings Volume X-Ray Instrumentation in Medicine and Biology, Plasma Physics, Astrophysics, and Synchrotron Radiation, (1989) https://doi.org/10.1117/12.961867
We are studying the diffuse scattering occuring when the X-ray beam is reflected by real surface. This diffuse scattering is produced by microroughnesses and other irregularities of a dielectric constant which retain after any method of surface finishing. The fundamental goal of this work is the physics of diffraction at irregular surfaces and interfaces. The results can be applied to the investigation and control of superpolished surfaces which is of interest both for research snd technology.
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K. A. Tanaka, M Kado, R. Kodama, M. Ohtani, S. Kitamoto, T. Yamanaka, K. Yamashita, S. Nakai
Proceedings Volume X-Ray Instrumentation in Medicine and Biology, Plasma Physics, Astrophysics, and Synchrotron Radiation, (1989) https://doi.org/10.1117/12.961868
X-ray microscopy is of extreme importance for measurement of plasma behavior in inertially confinement fusion. We have built a Schwarzschild type x-ray microscope for an x-ray wavelength of λ = 70Å. Nickel Carbon (Ni/C) multilayers have been tested for the normal incidence coating. Reported are critical points of the coating and characteristics of the microscope such as overall reflectivity and spatial resolution.
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Proceedings Volume X-Ray Instrumentation in Medicine and Biology, Plasma Physics, Astrophysics, and Synchrotron Radiation, (1989) https://doi.org/10.1117/12.961869
An improved method of optimizing the focal properties of holographic synchrotron diffraction gratings for use in normal and grazing incidence monochromators is presented. Generation of holographic line patterns on spherical blanks by aspheric wave interference considerably reduces the main aberrations of classic Rowland-type gratings. Especially in grazing incidence, the correction of coma at two points in the spectral range (4 to 12 nm) yields a substantial increase of spectral resolution. Super-smooth surfaces of blanks and interferometer elements together with an elaborate photo resist and ion beam etching technology are the main requirements for the generation of such high-performance diffraction gratings.
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Proceedings Volume X-Ray Instrumentation in Medicine and Biology, Plasma Physics, Astrophysics, and Synchrotron Radiation, (1989) https://doi.org/10.1117/12.961870
The application of the commercially available silicon photodiodes for the X-ray diagnostics of laser plasma is presented in the paper. The epitaxial-diffused type photodiodes, arranged in the special detector head, allowed to measure the soft X-ray pulses with sub-nanosecond time resolution. The time resolution of the measured pulses was improved by digital processing. These and the PIN type photodiodes, with the use of charge amplifiers and multichannel data acquisition system, were also applied in so called "calorimetric" measurements.
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Proceedings Volume X-Ray Instrumentation in Medicine and Biology, Plasma Physics, Astrophysics, and Synchrotron Radiation, (1989) https://doi.org/10.1117/12.961871
Solar UV and EUV spectroscopy in the 10 - 55 eV (135 - 25 nm) range with low spectral resolution (650 - 150 resolving power or 0.16 nm) and good angular resolution on the solar image (5 arcsec) has been very successful on ATM/SKYLAB. In combination with other solar experiments, this instrumentation has produced data which have permitted to make a major step in our understanding of the external atmospheric layers. In this wavelength range, since that experiment, no other solar instrumentation has produced results. We have studied the concept of a solar spectrometer in the 8 - 25 eV (or 160-50 nm) domain with 4.0-1.9x 104 resolving power and one arcsecond angular resolution. Such a spectrometer uses a normal incidence mounting with stigmatic properties; the 300 arcsecond length entrance slit produces 300 simultaneous spectra onto the detector. This instrumentation (Solar Ultraviolet Measurement of Emitted Radiation - SUMER) has been selected to be part of the SOlar Heliospheric Observatory satellite (SOHO) approved by ESA and NASA. The description and the performances of the optical scheme are reported in this paper.
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R. E. Burge, J. T. Beswetherick, M. T. Browne, P. S. Charalambous, P J. Duke, G. F. Foster, A. R. Hare, A. G. Michette, D. Morris, et al.
Proceedings Volume X-Ray Instrumentation in Medicine and Biology, Plasma Physics, Astrophysics, and Synchrotron Radiation, (1989) https://doi.org/10.1117/12.961872
This paper gives a summary of the current state of development of the King's College scanning x-ray microscope. The characteristics of the microscope and scanning stage are described, and preliminary work on the design of an environmental chamber for the examination of hydrated specimens and biological material is also reported.
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A. V. Vinogradov, I. V. Kozhevnikov, V. E. Levashov, S. I. Sagitov, V. A, Chirkov, V. V. Kondrateriko, I. F. Mikhailov, A. I. Fedorenko, I. I. Lyakhovskaya
Proceedings Volume X-Ray Instrumentation in Medicine and Biology, Plasma Physics, Astrophysics, and Synchrotron Radiation, (1989) https://doi.org/10.1117/12.961873
Evaporated and sputtered multilayer mirrors consisting of the layers Ti-Si, Nb-Si, Mo-Si and Ti-Be for the wavelength range λ = 30-35 nm are synthesized on flat and spherical substrates. Preliminary measurements are carried out at sliding incidence for λ = 0.154 nm (CuKa∝ ) and for the range λ = 10-21 nm. To measure the reflectivity under normal incidence for the wavelengths range λ ~30-35 nm an experimental method of studying point X-ray source image is developed. Plasma from the focused laser beam at the surface of sulphur is used as an X-ray source. This source and its image produced by multilayer spherical mirror are studied simultaneously with XUV spectrograph of spatial resolution. The comparison of the spectra of the source, which contains many lines and its image, enables one to find the spectral dependence of mirror reflectivity at nearly normal incidence (for incidence angle up to 0.1° ) . Another facility was used for flat multilayer reflectivity measurement at λ~10 - 21 nm Experimental reflectivities in this range are up to 51 %.
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A. J. F. den Boggende, M. Neviere, P. H. Videler, P. A. J. de Korte, A. C. Brinkman, S. M. Kahn
Proceedings Volume X-Ray Instrumentation in Medicine and Biology, Plasma Physics, Astrophysics, and Synchrotron Radiation, (1989) https://doi.org/10.1117/12.961874
The influence of replication on the X-ray diffraction efficiency of blazed reflection gratings is studied by measurements at 0.834 and 1.334 nm. Full electromagnetic calculations show that the differences in the diffraction efficiency of the first generation replicas can be explained by rounding off of the tops of the grooves as measured by stylus measurements of the groove profiles. The efficiency degradation of the second generation replica can not easily be attributed to a different groove shape. The cause of this degradation is as yet unclear. The apex angle of a blazed X-ray grating is not a critical parameter for its efficiency.
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Rene Hudec, Boris Valnicek, Lubomir Svatek, Vaclav Landa
Proceedings Volume X-Ray Instrumentation in Medicine and Biology, Plasma Physics, Astrophysics, and Synchrotron Radiation, (1989) https://doi.org/10.1117/12.961875
A brief discussion of replica techniques used by different groups for production of X-ray optics is given and drawbacks and advantages of each technology are discussed. The galvanoplastic technology used in Czechoslovakia is discussed in detail and some recent applications, developments and results are described.
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Proceedings Volume X-Ray Instrumentation in Medicine and Biology, Plasma Physics, Astrophysics, and Synchrotron Radiation, (1989) https://doi.org/10.1117/12.961876
We call "monograph" a spectrometer which can work as well as a spectrograph or as a monochromator. The system has been designed to allow time resolved spectroscopy on hot laser excited plasmas by using a slit camera and either a single or a multichannel detector. The mounting derives from a plane grating monochromator (PGM) configuration, which associates a toroidal mirror and a plane holographic grating with non uniform groove distribution to allow optimum aberration correction. The mirror and the grating work at nearly the same deviation angle in a compensated manner which gives an "in line" configuration.
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Proceedings Volume X-Ray Instrumentation in Medicine and Biology, Plasma Physics, Astrophysics, and Synchrotron Radiation, (1989) https://doi.org/10.1117/12.961877
The report is concerned with the design problems X-ray optics elements and devices for studying parameters of soft X-ray sources. The this paper presents some results to the effect obtained in the Lebedev Physical Institute of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR.
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Proceedings Volume X-Ray Instrumentation in Medicine and Biology, Plasma Physics, Astrophysics, and Synchrotron Radiation, (1989) https://doi.org/10.1117/12.961878
In order to extend the variety of its optical coatings, MATRA has launched out into realization of selective multilayer mirrors in the X-UV spectral range. MATRA already owned the manufacturing means, a radiofrequency sputtering plant equiped so as to make homogeneous deposition of multilayer coatings in a completely automatic process, simultaneously on several substrates of diameter up to 80mm. The mean of control after deposition consists in an X-Ray goniometer working at the wavelength of 1.54 Å, developed according to an original conception by the "Institut d'Optique Theorique et Appliquee". This measuring bench permits to obtain a precise value of the period of the multilayer and its mean index at the wavelength of 1.54 Å. These means of manufacturing and control permit to realize multilayers selective mirrors for wavelength down to 1 Å with periods down to approximately 30 Å. A very powerfull program of calculation determines the best multilayer adapted to a given problem, taking account of variation of complex index with wavelength, incidence and polarization. Three couples of materials are used up to now, which are carbon-tungsten, silicon-tungsten and carbon-nolybdenum, and the first results of absolute reflectivity are encouraging. Others materials are planned to be used to respond to most specific problems.
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J. M. Munier, F. Gex, G. Lelievre, D. Bauduin, P. Bonnay, J. Gauthey, J. P. Gex, C. Cavailler
Proceedings Volume X-Ray Instrumentation in Medicine and Biology, Plasma Physics, Astrophysics, and Synchrotron Radiation, (1989) https://doi.org/10.1117/12.961879
We have studied the response of a Xe-solid reflexion photocathode in a wide spectral range, from 5 key to 1.3 Mev. We compared the measured sensitivity to the gold photocathode one, in the same conditions, and found gains up to 1200 at 45 key, The linearity of the response and the gain obtained, even with this simple test experiment, enable us to envisage further developments of x-ray detectors with high efficiency and good time resolution.
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Proceedings Volume X-Ray Instrumentation in Medicine and Biology, Plasma Physics, Astrophysics, and Synchrotron Radiation, (1989) https://doi.org/10.1117/12.961880
Results concerning thermal stability of W/C, Ni/C, W/Si and W/Ti multilayers under pulsed laser irradiation are deduced from small angle X-Ray diffraction measurements and are compared with effects of thermal annealing under secondary vacuum on samples from the same batch. The microstructure was controlled by transmission electron microscopy in the plane of the layers. Composition profiles were determined by combining simulation of small angle X-Ray scattering patterns and Auger electron spectroscopy. This allowed us to propound different diffusion mechanisms, depending on the nature of the components and on the conditions of elaboration.
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C. Chenais-Popovics, C. Fievet, J. P. Geindre, J. C. Gauthier, E. Luc-Koenig, J. F. Wyart, H. Pepin, M. Chaker
Proceedings Volume X-Ray Instrumentation in Medicine and Biology, Plasma Physics, Astrophysics, and Synchrotron Radiation, (1989) https://doi.org/10.1117/12.961881
We present here a direct diagnostic of the shallow temperature gradient created in the very dense region of a laser irradiated target by X-UV radiation. A multilayered target composed of a plastic substrate covered with a thin samarium layer is irradiated with a 0.26 μm wavelength laser pulse at irradiances of 3. 1014 W/cm2. A thin aluminium layer is inserted in the plastic as an absorbing tracer at different distances from the samarium. Kα absorption lines appear in the samarium quasi-continuum emission around 1.5 keV. The analysis of these lines gives the temperature of the aluminium layer. A shallow temperature gradient between 40 and 100 eV is measured and compared with radiative hydrocode simulations which predict that the X-UV emission of samarium around 400 eV create a radiative heat wave responsible of the observed temperature gradient.
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