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This PDF file contains the front matter associated with SPIE Proceedings Volume 3746, including the Title Page, Copyright information, Table of Contents, and Conference Committee listing.
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The latest commercial aircraft, such as the Boeing 777 and the Airbus 320, use a Fly-by-Wire (FBW) flight control system instead of a conventional mechanical flight control system. Pilot's commands are transferred to control surfaces through electrical wires instead of through mechanical cables, rods, and rinks. The FBW system has a number of advantages over the mechanical system, some of which are sophisticated control using computer technology, lighter weight, and easier maintenance. A disadvantage, however is its susceptibility to Electro-Magnetic Interference (EMI) and High Intensity Radiated Field (HIRF). One way to avoid the problems due to this susceptibility is to use shielded electrical cables, but this increases the cable weight.
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Distributed velocity sensing by using a fiber-optic low coherence interferometer is proposed and demonstrated theoretically and experimentally. The flow velocity is measured directly from a width of a Gaussian spectrum of backscattered light.
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This paper reports on results with a novel Sagnac-loop sensor, using spectral slicing of a broadband Er-doped fibre source and has a 40km long sensor loop. Our new WDM arrangement allows use of a single source and optical receiver, yet has low intrinsic losses. The residual optical crosstalk due to non-ideal WDM components is modelled and the initial position dependent results presented.
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We report a reduction in the fading noise of Rayleigh-backscattering profiles for coherent optical frequency-domain reflectometry (C-OFDR) which uses a wavelength-tunable narrow-linewidth light source and an external electro-optic modulator. We measured a 100-m optical fiber with a spatial resolution of 30 cm and a dynamic range of greater than 15dB. The fading noise was reduced to 0.13 dB by averaging the spectrum while changing the wavelength and polarization state of the light. This is the best result to date for C-OFDR with a spatial resolution of better than 1 m.
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A method for measuring a distributed strain or temperature profile along a fiber Bragg grating is proposed. By using an a priory knowledge about the index modulation amplitude, the sensing parameters are obtained from the reflectivity spectrum.
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A new method of locating lightning strikes by detecting the transient fluctuation of SOP (states of polarization) of light in OPGW (optical ground wire) is proposed and its performance is discussed with field measurements.
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I demonstrate a novel distributed fiber strain sensing technique based on dispersive microwave frequency shifting where the amount of microwave frequency shift is proportional to the amount of strain on the fiber.
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The paper describes a number of fibre optic sensor systems either under development or recently realised in the oil & gas industry. Applications described are both in the up-stream sector (exploration & production) and in the down-stream sector (refinery processing).
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Optical Fibre Sensors (OFS) based on Fibre Bragg Gratings (FBGs) as sensing elements are attracting considerable interest for structural integrity monitoring. This is also true in harsh environments, like nuclear power plant, environments. The intrinsic safety, the immunity to electromagnetic interference and the enhanced multiplexing capabilities make OFSs an interesting alternative to conventional nuclear instrumentation. Little is known, however, about the response of OFSs, and FBGs in particular, to ionising radiation.
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We describe two probes which incorporate interferometric optical fibre sensors for gas total temperature and pressure measurements in transient flow rigs for turbomachinery research. Experimental results are presented from both probes deployed downstream of a turbine rotor.
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We report on the monitoring with fiber Bragg gratings of vibrations present in a surface ship waterjet on an in-service vessel during naval exercises near Bergen, Norway and in transit from Norway to Kiel, Germany.
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By applying a new mixed analog/digital signal processing algorithm the inherent low photonic and optics noise of a magnetooptic current transformer was exploited for high resolution current measurement over a range of 80dB.
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This paper presents results of investigations focusing on the use of fiber optic Bragg grating sensors e.g. for experimental stress analysis, determination of wing deformations, flight test installations, health monitoring systems, etc.
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With a new quatemionic approach for modeling polarization effects the parameters of the elliptic birefringent sensor medium are reconstructed from the characteristic curve of a magneto-optic current transformer and subsequently their temperature dependence is calculated.
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This paper describes a fiber-optic level sensor for liquid propane-butane. A discrete multi-element device employing novel refractometric transducers was selected because it yields both a large measurement range and high resolution. Several innovations offer a competitive advantage to industrial users.
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Two novel methods for achieving range-variable optical voltage sensor based on periodically poled LiNbO3 are described in which the measurement range can be controlled by simply varying either the polarisation direction of incident light or the length of the LiNbO3 sensing element.
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By using optical sensors for current and voltage measurement a novel monitoring system with digital information interfaces is developed, which includes the recognition and location of earth faults by combining distributed and concentrated current sensors.
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The thermal characteristics of a lithium niobate integrated-optic voltage sensor with variable sensing ranges are described. The sensor consists of a Mach-Zehnder interferometric modulator with an array of buried electrodes on the X-cut lithium niobate substrate. The bias stability and scale factor variation due to temperature change are measured by the harmonic component measurement method. The bias phase remains stable to a total variation of 2° over 10∼50°C and the scale factor increases about 0.1% per 1°C increment.
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The Ionic Self-Assembly Monolayer (ISAM) process was utilized to fabricate a novel optical fiber humidity sensor based on a nano interferometric cavity. This sensor operates from 23% RH to 100% RH with a maximum variation of 2.25 dB.
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The developed fiber-optic triple sensor allows in-vivo dose measurements in the tissue of the patient's body. In contrast to a fiber-optic twin-sensor the measurement with this sensor shows no irreproducibilities caused by irradiation effects on the transmission fibers, which connect the sensor with the evaluation system. It consists of two radiation sensitive fibers and a radiation resistant fiber (HCG-fiber), which is the same fiber as the one used to transmit the sensor signal to the evaluation electronics.
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A simple optical fiber water sensor using Tm3+:YAG fluorescent light is constructed. Highly sensitive measurement of water concentration in ethanol and methanol is achieved by use of the intensity ratio of fluorescent and pumping lights.
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This paper presents two applications of Fiber Optic Refractive Index measurements for Chemical Processing. The first one has been developed at IFP Solaize in France and is aimed at providing concentration and mixing efficiencies measurements inside catalytic beds. The second one, developed at several oil processing plants in the USA provides end point monitoring of the food oil hydrogenation process. Both applications use the Metricor2000 system, which provides accurate refractive index measurements (down to 0.0001), using white light interferometry and Fabry Perot sensing cavities. The applications will be described and experimental results provided.
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The quantitative detection of acetylene gas is demonstrated using an all-fiber sensor operating at 1.5 μm. We find that the sensitivity is enhanced by a factor of 1.58 as compared with the single path absorption.
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Compact intra-cavity spectroscopic measurements may be obtained with any material that has an absorption signature under the gain bandwidth of a fiber laser. Experiments have been carried out with acetylene and the erbium fiber laser. Since intra-cavity spectroscopy is essentially a single beam technique, dual beam noise reduction is not possible. Considering that a single mode fiber can support two modes of polarization, we have used a polarization beam splitter to create two independent cavities (x and y polarization) with the same noise, one cavity of which contains the absorber. For the first time this permits the convenient use of Balanced Ratiometric Detection in conjunction with sensitive intra cavity absorption.
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A planar surface plasmon resonance sensor with spectral interrogation for real-time monitoring of biochemical reactions is described. The use of fiber optics gives the possibility for miniaturization, remote sensing, network multiplexing, and low-cost fabrication as well. Preliminary results of comparative experiments with more expensive commercial SPR instruments for analytical laboratory use show the potential capability of the sensor for manifold application in on-line biomonitoring (bioengineering, pharmacology, medical care, food industry, environmental control, and others).
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Delamination problems are one of the most important issues affecting the applications of composite laminates. Delamination reduces overall structural performance of composite laminates such as stiffness, strength, and buckling load. The advantages of the fiber optic sensor are the potential solutions for sensing of smart structures. Therefore, it is necessary to observe the signal characteristics of fiber optic sensor(FOS) and to identify the influence of delamination failure on composite laminates. The delaminated unidirectional composite specimens subjected to the compressive load were tested to study the characteristics of FOS signals when the buckling and the growth of delamination occurred.
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A low coherence tandem interferometric system is used to monitor the reaction of TMOS sol-gels, aerogels and polymers when subjected to humidity. The resolution of the system is 5 nm with a dynamic range of 1.4:104.
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This paper describes the development status ofa 3-Axis Fiber Optic Gyroscope, which adopts just one light source for three orthogonal fiber coils combined with a depolarized configuration and a closed loop signal processing integrated into one unit.
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We demonstrate a feedback insensitive operation of fiber amplifier/source(FAS) in a gyroscope by lasing the FAS with fiber gratings. We obtain stable FAS characteristics that climinate most ofthe gyro output distortion due to feedback effect.
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The Fiber Optic Rate Gyro can be configured as a form-fit-function replacement for targeted systems. Key advantages include a lightweight solid state configuration with extended operating life and immunity from most forms of electromagnetic interference.
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A low cost Gyrocompass has been developed using the Fiber Optic Gyroscope. A 0.16 deg. rms direction finding performance has been demonstrated using a low noise Fiber Optic Gyroscope with depolarized configuration. This paper describes the configuration & performance of FOG & the Gyrocompass (FOG compass).
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Twisting affects performance of fiber optic components fabricated by fusion-tapering process. Fiber Optic Gyro ≪spliceless≫ manufacturing technique (≪S-process≫) has involved taper twisting as a method of in-process adjustment to get higher production yield.
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We present an OCT system equipped with dynamic focus. Using the Doppler optical tomography method, the velocity of an opaque fluid (milk) is determined at a depth of 2 mm with 150 μW of optical power.
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A new concept of in-line optical fiber ellipsometer in two different configurations of classical polarimeter and Sagnac interferometer is presented. The possibility of detection the changes of full polarization state in the systems contained standard single-mode fiber, by appropriate applied modulation technique is discussed.
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The principal states of polarization of an embedded fiber-optic strain sensor were, for the first time, simultaneously measured together with the sensor response. Under applied stress, these principal states may change, resulting in a fluctuating readout.
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The measurement errors of the wavelength scanning fiber-optic distance sensor, resulting from the multibeam interference in the Fabry-Perot(F-P) cavities, can be reduced by selecting the optimal cavity reflectivity and the reference cavity length.
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Twenty-eight fiber-grating sensors were used to instrument two reinforced concrete beams that were externally strengthened with composites on the historic Horsetail Falls Bridge in the Columbia River Gorge. Sensor assemblies were placed in the beams and mounted on the outside of the composite to provide performance data.
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This paper describes the development of an interferometric fibre optic hydrophone system which uses time and wavelength division multiplexing to address in excess of 100 elements. A 32 element time multiplexed module has been constructed, and the performance of this is demonstrated.
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A time domain multiplexed system for strain or temperature monitoring using four Bragg gratings arranged along one fibre is constructed and tested. A Michelson interferometer allows the wavelength shift of the light reflected from a strained or heated fibre grating to be converted into phase information and thus determine the measurand.
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We present a coherence-multiplexed system composed of four temperature-compensated pressure sensors and four temperature sensors. This system can be used either for independent monitoring of slowly changing pressures (range 0−20MPa) and temperatures (range from −50C to +50C) at eight different places or for simultaneous measurement of pressure and temperature at four places.
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Cross-talks in parallel Fabry-Perot sensors for demodulation in a path-matching differential interferometry (PMDI) can be limited by corresponding path-matching read-out systems. However, improper design in cavity lengths of Fabry-Perots can cause a serious cross-talk. In this paper, using a spectrum analysis to design the parallel Fabry-Perot sensors without cross-talk is presented. It is concluded that the length difference in each two Fabry-Perot cavities needs to be longer than the coherence length in a broadband light source. Experimental data shows that the cross-talk between two parallel Fabry-Perot sensors in PMDI is in a good agreement with the analytical predication.
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A fibre-optic system for monitoring bridges with multiplexing support for >64 grating-based strain sensors is presented. Differential wavelength-demultiplexing controlled via LabView™ results in a system with 1με resolution, in-built temperature-referencing and readiness for commercial field-trials.
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An investigation of the use of fluorescence intensity ratio and lifetime techniques for Yb-doped fiber based temperature sensing has been undertaken. Results of the thermal characteristics and the effect of fiber composition are presented.
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A network of intensity modulated optical vibration sensors combined with an OTDR signal detection and a real time signal processing leads to an affordable solution for multi channel vibration sensing systems.
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We directly fabricated fiber Bragg gratings with high reliability through UV-transparent coatings of germanosilicate fibers. The change in the center wavelength of the fiber grating was stable even in highly strain environments of 43200 με.
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The temperature dependence of the loss of a silica-based image fiber induced by γ-ray irradiation was examined and the deterioration of transmitted image quality was discussed.
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Bending sensitivity of Bragg gratings in multimode graded-index fiber is investigated experimentally. Bragg gratings in dispersion shifted fiber at a 3-mode propagating wavelength are also used and compared. Polarization and temperature dependence is also measured.
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An extrinsic Faraday current sensor using semimagnetic crystals and a common mode rejection scheme for eliminating environmental vibration-induced optical noise in the fibre links is presented. The configuration allows for more than 20dB noise rejection.
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A superluminescent diode based three-wavelength passive quadrature phase demodulation scheme which uses microcontroller based real time arctan - calculation has been developed for readout of fiber-optic EFPI - vibration, acoustic and strain sensors. Quasistatic strain and dynamic vibration sensing with up to 80 kHz sampling rate is demonstrated. Nonlinearities in the %-range by dephasing of the nominally π/2 phase shifted interference signals with increasing fringe number is corrected for with a suitable algorithm resulting in significant improvement of the phase - strain characteristic.
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A new manufacturing process for advanced Fiber Bragg Gratings that uses phase plates is presented. We underline its versatility through the realisation of several filters (phaseshifted, apodised, Fabry Perot Interferometer).
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Classification of distributed optical fibre sensing methods and their main properties for measuring quantity information continuously from a long sensor fibre have been reported. In addition, the results of a comparison in respect to spatial resolution, measurement time and range are summarised.
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We describe FMCW reflectometry for long optical fibers by using an external-cavity laser diode as a light source. The propagation loss of optical fibers was measured, and the gain of a fiber amplifier was also estimated.
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We have demonstrated short pulse generation from an optical fiber laser system with a cholesteric liquid crystal mirror. Mode-locking laser pulses of 1.8 ps with 2.8 nm spectral bandwidth have been obtained in a simple Fabry-Perot cavity configuration.
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A novel structure, which converts wasted backward ASE to seed photons for the amplifying stage is suggested for a high power erbium doped fiber broadband source. Experimental results showed considerable increase in output power over 10dB for most radiation bands between 1540nm and 1620nm, with the simple addition of an unpumped EDF section in the conventional single pass structure, in addition to slight bandwidth extension.
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The tolerance of two fiber distributed feedback lasers to external back-reflection from discrete reflectors and to Rayleigh back-scattering has been investigated. The results show a reduced feedback sensitivity for the longer laser grating.
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The small dimensions of fibre Bragg gratings allow their utilisation for microsensors. We report results of different field tests and a reliable and low-cost interrogation unit with a resolution being sufficient for most applications.
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A general analytical expression for describing the growth of the resonant peak wavelengths of long period gratings is derived. The theoretical calculations explain the shift of peak loss wavelengths in the direction of either shorter or longer wavelengths as the induced index change of grating increases. We have also shown the insensitivity of the resonant peaks with respect to the overlay index and their dependence on the grating period.
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The residual stresses caused by photo-induced densification inside an optical fiber Bragg grating are evaluated using Finite Element Analysis (FEA). Experimental data obtained on preforms and reported in open literature are used in the computer model to calculate the residual stress levels and their spatial distribution. The results provide some insights into the cause of the strength degradation occurring during Bragg grating fabrication process.
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We report measurements of first- and second-order dispersion and wavelength-dependent beam divergence in single-mode Photonic Crystal Fibre. These results show good agreement with the published model of wave propagation in this novel waveguiding medium.
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This paper describes a single micro-optical fiber sensor capable of measuring three strains simultaneously in a composite structure subjected to ballistic impact. The development of the sensor fabrication and signal processing techniques and finite element analysis are provided.
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We demonstrate the high temperature sensitivity of the polymer-packaged fiber grating. By packaging fiber grating with a special type of polymer, twenty-three times enhanced thermal sensitivity and 41.32nm tuning range have been abstained.
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A rigorous numerical approach is presented by incorporating the finite element, the least squares boundary residual and the transfer matrix methods to study a wide range of representative Bragg grating devices for optical sensing.
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White-light frequency-domain interferometry produces a channelled spectrum by interference of the orthogonal eigen-modes propagated in the fiber. Modal birefringence dispersion along the orthogonal axes is measured to offer an important parameter for sensor use.
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We fabricated a new taper-type optical fiber mode converter by thermally fusing and elongating a pre-tapered and its original two-mode fibers together, based on the requirements of phase matching and adiabatic taper conditions.
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We performed an experiment in which we collapsed a life-sized model of a river levee and measured the strain produced in its slope face using a fiber optic distributed strain sensor. The result showed the potential to be able to detect levee collapse at an early stage.
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When a micromachine works inside a narrow space, visually-equipped microdevices are indispensable. To monitor minute shapes that are impossible to observe, fiberscope-type environmental recognition devices have been developed.
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An extrinsic - Fabry-Perot interferometer dual vibration sensor system is described which is installed at the edge of a taxiway of Braunschweig airport for ground traffic monitoring. Experimental results obtained in the laboratory as well as field tests are reported demonstrating sensor identification via their characteristic resonance frequencies, vehicle localisation as well as determination of direction and speed.
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Three Bragg gratings including a temperature reference have been installed on a 160 m long overhead conductor span carrying 60 kilovolts. Measurements on wind-induced loads like vibrations and forces from steady winds are reported.
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A simple method to measure the thermal expansion coefficient using a surface mounted Bragg grating sensor is presented. This method uses a single, uniform pitch Bragg grating fiber with preloading that is only partially glued on the specimen. After release, two Bragg wavelengths are observed. The Bragg wavelength reflected from the sensor section not glued to the specimen is used to measure temperature variations; and the Bragg wavelength reflected from the sensor section glued to the specimen is affected by thermal strain variations. Therefore, the thermal expansion coefficient can be determined by calculating the difference of the spectral separation between two Bragg wavelengths.
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The need for weighing vehicles travelling at normal highway speed, present in several applications, has resulted in the development of a host of weighing methods. These methods, referred to as Weigh-in-Motion (WIM) of road vehicles, estimate the static weight of a moving vehicle by measuring instantaneous axle load.
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The self-interference fringes formed by a single long-period fiber grating whose one end has reflectivity are presented. This device has a higher resolution than the device based on a conventional long-period grating as a fine temperature sensor.
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Residual stnesses building up in micno structune of composite materials during the manufacturing process are calculated by the Finite Element Method. The results obtained are verified by optical fibre sensors. Fastening of the optical fibres to the surrounding material is ensured by chemical bonds.
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We propose a simple scheme for the real-time measurement for dynamic strain using a fiber Bragg grating and the ASE profile of EDFA. The real-time measurement of dynamic strain with a wide range of 0∼2700 μstrain and 0∼1 kHz is experimentally demonstrated without any signal processing.
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Modulation characteristics of unwanted interferometric signals (interferometric noise) in a fibre Bragg grating sensor using a tunable laser and a first derivative interrogation technique are investigated. It is found that the wavelength detection error can be reduced significantly by proper modulation of the laser wavelength.
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We successfully demonstrated an EDF temperature sensor with a higher resolution using a 1480 nm pump scheme. The resolution could be enhanced with larger pump power.
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The performance of a simple thulium (Tm) powder-based probe has been calibrated, in particular to very high temperatures (T > 1000°C) and under temperature cycling. The data obtained show high temperature stability compared with other fluorescence-based sensor systems.
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By depositing thin films on the end of an optical fiber, it is possible to make simple, in situ measurements of film growth, refractive index, and surface roughness. Agreement with witness samples is excellent.
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A new type of fiber sensor has been developed for structural damage monitoring through fiber networks. The sensor utilizes a short-length, different core-size fiber insertion in a single-mode-fiber network line.
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Non contact optical techniques have been extensively used in vibration sensing for a number of years, especially for the measurement of small amplitude vibrations [1]. Optical probing of the vibrating component has the advantage of being extremely sesnittive with a large dynamic range.
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A novel fiber Bragg grating temperature sensor with a modular artificial neural networks (ANNs) is demonstrated for high resolution temperature sensing. The root mean square temperature resolution 0.007 °C of this sensor can be achieved experimentally.
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A new model of the power coupling between multimode optical fibers is presented, intended for the analysis and design of extrinsic optical fiber sensors. The model has shown good agreement with the experimental measurements.
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We discuss the influence of the electro-optic Kerr effect on optical fiber current sensors in a simulated Gas Insulated System environment. We also show that current, voltage, and phase can be measured using one transducer.
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We describe the successful fabrication of multi-turn, low-birefringence (δneff≤5.10-8), low-loss (αP≤0.15dB/cm) waveguides and their implementation in multi-turn integrated optics current sensors. We also measured a weak linear birefringence temperature sensitivity of 10-8/°C.
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We demonstrate multiplexing of polarimetric fiber laser current sensors in frequency domain. Each sensor is operated at a different polarization beat frequency that is modulated in response to applied current. A simple frequency demodulation technique is used for signal processing.
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Different incremental ways to extend the measuring range of magneto optic current sensors have been demonstrated already. For absolute measurement of Faraday angles higher 45° a new principle was developed which uses two sensor wavelengths.
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We have measured the high frequency response of optical magnetic field sensors using bismuth-substituted rare-earth iron garnet films up to 1 GHz. A resonance peak was observed in the frequency response spectrum, but flat response to 230 MHz was observed. The cause of the resonance phenomenon can be understood from domain wall resonance.
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This paper present a polarimetric fiber optics current sensor using a 22.5 degree Faraday rotator and a Faraday rotation mirror. The objective of this sensor is to be low-cost, high accuracy and easy to manufacture
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Fiber lasers have been studied and developed extensively for short pulse generation, optical sensing and medical applications, and high-bit-rate communication sources [1]. The optical fiber in a laser cavity is an excellent nonlinear element that enables us to take advantage of various optical nonlinear phenomena, such as soliton effects, self phase modulation, and Raman scattering.
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Long-period gratings (LPGs) are one of the most important components not only in telecommunication systems but also in optical fiber sensors. Many sensing applications for the measurement of temperature, strain, pressure etc. have been developing with LPGs.
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A stepped wavelength fiber grating array fabricated during fiber drawing is used to determine the wavelength of a sensor grating by measuring the time delay of a light pulse reflected from the matching array-grating.
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A low-cost technique using commerical UV grade silica fibers to construct microlens array that is suitable for mass-production of long-period gratings is reported. The growth rate of gratings fabricated using the array is four times faster than using metal mask.
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We describe the experimental construction of a single longitudinal mode Er-doped fibre ring laser incorporating a ring resonator filter. The system is designed to avoid mode hopping and may be frequency scanned for spectroscopic sensor applications.
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Line-width of 500kHz Fiber-Bragg-Grating external cavity Laser (FGL) was realized forrfrig resonatortype trace gas sensing purposes. SüigIe pass absorption experiment showed that FGL gave the strongest absorplion of acetylene compared with other laser.
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Dither demodulation of fibre Bragg grating sensors illuminated with multimode light from cheap compact disc laser diodes is investigated. Quasi-static temperature and strain sensitivities of 0.09 °C/√Hz and 0.6 με/√Hz are obtained. It is shown that small ac signals outside the loop bandwidth can be measured using synchronous detection at double the dither frequency.
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Different fiber Bragg grating reliability issues are currently under investigation in Europe. Recent results on thermal decay of gratings, on mechanical reliability of single- and multi-shot gratings, and on the influence of γ-irradiation will be presented.
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The design and performance characteristics of a series of structural-grade fiber Bragg grating based flexural beam accelerometers is reported. A concentrated mass added to the transducer allows for tailoring of the sensor's performance for specific applications. The sensors reported have sensitivities in the range 2-12.5 με/g, high resonant frequencies (>300 Hz), very low cross-axis sensitivity (∼40 dB below the main axis response), and low noise (∼1 mg/√Hz near 1 Hz). An array of these accelerometers was used in monitoring ship sub-structure motion, and selected results are presented.
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We demonstrate that short in-fibre Bragg gratings may be used to measure MHz acoustic fields and that temperature can be measured simultaneously using a cost-effective monochromator/CCD arrangement.
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We describe novel designs of sensor made from standard silica fibres with oblique facets polished at the tip, and various surface treatments. They use Total Internal Reflection to distinguish immiscible fluids in a multi-phase flow.
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We report a high sensitivity pressure sensor utilizing optical fibers coated with novel polymers. Pressure sensitivity of 5 pico-m/psi for the fiber Bragg grating based and −155 dB radian/μPa for interferometric sensor is reported.
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We demonstrate repeatable, directional curvature determination to ± 0.05 m-1 using two long period fiber gratings bonded to either side of a metal plate. One grating was utilized for negative, and the other for positive curvature measurements by exploiting an unusual orientation dependence of the grating response.
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An underwater acoustic sensor with fiber Bragg gratings can detect a real-time waveform and thereby amplitude and phase of an acoustic field, which in turn allows directive detection of the field with an arrayed structure.
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We report a detailed study of the noise properties of dual Mach-Zehnder interferometers interrogated with narrowband (<15GHz) fiber ASE sources. A minimum detectable phase of 62 μrad/√Hz is obtained for practical values (∼1cm) of length mismatch using a simple heterodyne technique and optimized configuration.
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Distributed strain measurements on synthetic fibre ropes as used in marine applications are reported. The ropes incorporate single mode fibre-optic sensors for strain measurement. A Brillouin-amplification-based distributed strain measuring system has been utilised to interrogate the fibre sensors incorporated into a parallel yarn aramid rope. Initial results are presented to conclusively demonstrate the technical feasibility ofthe approach.
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A novel remote fiberised humidity sensor is described. The sensor works linearly over the full range of humidity. Its accuracy is 1.6% with a fast response time and does not suffer from ageing, or hysteresis.
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Developments of Fibre Bragg Grating-based sensors and their integration in multiplexing sensing systems are reported. The configuration of such a system installed in an underground nuclear waste disposal site is described.
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The satellite HALCA that the Institute of Space and Astronautical Science (ISAS) launched in February 1997 became the first space VLBI (Very Long Baseline Interferometry) satellite of the world. Long baselines between HALCA with an 8-in diameter antenna and ground-based radio telescopes have formed a synthesized aperture larger than the diameter of the Earth. Quasars and active galactic nuclei in deep universe have been imaged with extremely fine resolutions.
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There is increasing demand for monitoring the national highway infrastructure. This demand is supported by the fact that in United States alone, the Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) has deemed approximately one half of the 260,000 km of roadway contained in the National Highway System as poor to fair and about 110,000 out of 470,000 bridges as deficient [1].
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An investigation of the mechanical integrity of optical fibres in which Bragg gratings have been fabricated has been performed. The results indicate a decrease in the tensile strength of the fibre, the magnitude of which is dependent upon the illuminating UV wavelength.
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We describe novel Bragg grating sensors based single mode fiber made with side air holes. Measurements made at 12 kpsi and 100 C produced enhanced sensitivity and reduced thermal dependence compared to normal fiber Bragg gratings.
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We report the use of a fiber Bragg grating laser sensor to measure small dynamic strains on a poly-carbonate cylinder with resolutions from 10-11 rms/√Hz to 10-13rms/√Hz in the 100 kHz frequency range.
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An optical fiber coupler sensitive to stress is proposed, and integrated to a 4 x 4 array sensor. Measurements of two dimensional stress distribution are demonstrated by a matrix-style readout with light source switching.
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By depositing alternating 1/4 wave layers of silicon nitride and siliconrich silicon nitride at the end of an oplical fiber, it is possible to form a narrow band reflective wave stack. The wavelength of peak reflectivity is a function of temperature. We have been able to measure temperatures in excess of 1,000 centigrade have been measured with an accuracy of less than 1%.
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We will discuss performance enhancement of strain and temperature sensors by adjusting the doping concentrations of GeO2 and B2O3 in optical fiber in order to control the temperature sensitivity.
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Open-loop and closed-loop I-FOG products have been successfully applied to a number of industrial and commercial applications including vehicle navigation systems, auto-guided vehicle, attitude control systems of unmanned agricultural helicopter, pipe-mapping and north-finding systems.
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We propose and demonstrate Ternary Phase-Shift-Keying Modulation as a novel countermeasure for the backscattering induced noise in micro optic gyro (MOG) on silica planar lightwave circuit (PLC), whose thermo-optic phase modulator has limited bandwidth of only ∼ 1KHz.
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Rayleigh backscattering measurements on a fiber ring resonator enables to monitor loss and gyroscopic motion experienced by the ring. This easy-to-use technique yields to very sensitive fiber loss sensors and polarization-insensitive and low-cost gyroscopes.
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Navigational grade fiber-optic gyroscopes require superfluorescent sources (SFS) at 1.5 μm [1] whose output has a high power level for low shot noise, a large bandwidth to reduce excess noise, and a stable mean wavelength to yield a low scale factor drift.
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We describe our observation of bias frequency fluctuation resulted from an interplay between the optical Kerr effect and backscattering in a direction switched mode-locked Er-doped fiber laser gyroscope. We show that it can be suppressed by a push-pull phase modulation.
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We describe an improved signal processing technique for the mode-locked fiber laser gyroscope using a lock-in amplifier. We show that the output of the lock-in amplifier has a linear dependence on the rotation rate. The long-term stability has been significantly improved compared to that from time interval measurement previously reported.
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We propose and demonstrate a stabilization scheme for open-loop gyroscope employing an erbium-doped fiber amplifier/source. By tracking optimum phase modulation amplitude using two-frequency modulation, we obtain stable gyro output with suppressed distortion.
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A Resonator Fiber Optic Gyro with digital serrodyne modulation is constructed, which includes schemes for reduction of backscattering-induced noise and closed-loop operation with digital signal processing. A high resolution beyond the earth-rotation rate is demonstrated.
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A low-coherence interferometry based absolute measurement of strain and temperature has been conducted using two-mode bow-tie highly birefringent fibers for sensor and acoustooptic fiber scanner.
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A novel method is described for the elimination of signal fading in fiber-optic interferometers based on differentially frequency shifted orthogonal polarization components. An experimental demonstration showed full recovery of visibility and bias phase independence with high sensitivity.
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We demonstrate an empirical expression describing the polarization dependence of amplitude modulation by guided acoustic-wave Brillouin scattering (GAWBS) in an optical fiber. This is applied to a GAWBS temperature sensor free from polarization adjustment.
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In order to increase the safety of the civil engineering structures many different systems for their auscultation are developed. The majority of these systems are based on measurement of strain, deformation or displacement.
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We have developed a computer-controlled low-coherence interferometer system with precise translation stages which is useful in practice for simultaneous measurement of the refractive index and the thickness of transparent plates. Both phase and group indices can be determined automatically in a wide thickness range of 20μm to a few mm. The measurement accuracy of <1% is achieved even when the sample is as thin as 20μm. For the sample of a few hundreds μm or more, the measurement time is 3 minutes with the accuracy of ≦0.2%.
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Using numerical simulations we have studied the robustness of interferometric intenogation of Bragg gratings in high frequency dynamic strain applications, where the spectrum will change shape. Four different apodizations have been compared with respect to performance.
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A short review of distributed and multiplexed fibre grating sensor technology is presented, followed by a more detailed account of work at the University of Southampton, including aspects of temperature and strain discrimination and multiplexed and distributed sensing.
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We report on the adverse effects of fiber Bragg grating spectrum broadening on Fabry-Perot and fiber interferometric wavelength shift detection schemes.
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We report a test of a 27-channel strain sensor system on a naval vessel in operation. With the wavelength division multiplexed system we measured both global hull bending with sensor pairs and characterised local strain concentrations with rosettes.
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We report accurate demultiplexing of fiber Bragg grating sensors with reflection wavelengths separated by less than 2 nm using a method based on Hilbert transforms of interferograms. Demultiplexing ofthree gratings with less than 4 pm crosstalk and repeatability, and 19 pm uncertainty was demonstrated. We anticipate that a large number of gratings can be multiplexed with a single broadband source and a single receiving interferometer, provided that the interferogram is sampled with accurate intervals close to the Nyquist rate.
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In this paper, we demonstrate, for the first time to our knowledge, a technique of addressing FBG sensor array involving a novel concept of intensity and wavelength division multiplexing (IWDM). In comparison with the conventional IWDM method, the proposed IWDM technique has an advantage of doubling the number of the FBG sensors to be multiplexed while keeping the same dynamic-range for each sensor
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This paper reports on progress with the coherence-domain method for interrogation of Bragg grating pairs, presenting for the first time a simple theoretical analysis of the interrogation procedure and describing the first measurements of useful engineering parameters (strain, pressure) with the system.
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Fibre optic Bragg grating (FBG) sensors are finding increasing application for measurement of temperature and strain (cp., e.g., Ref 1). The spectral encoding of the measurand is advantageous, as measurement of the centroid of the Bragg reflection ensures good immunity to disturbances in signal transmission lines.
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In this paper, we describe a fiber-optic-coupled radiation sensor that can be placed directly at the site of a tumor in a patient that is undergoing radiation therapy. The sensor provides real-time feedback during the therapy procedure allowing for precise control of the delivered dose. It is expected that better control of the radiotherapy parameters will lead to increased survivability statistics and a better overall quality of life for cancer patients.
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The response of a new hydrogen sensor based on palladium electroplated Fiber Bragg Grating (FBG) in 0.6% hydrogen at 95°C is reported. A heat treatment at 150°C in air is critical to fast sensor response.
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The feasibility of a new fiber Bragg grating (FBG) based hydrogen sensor has been demonstrated and its performance characterized. The sensor performance can be improved by operating at elevated temperatures and by purging in air.
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This paper reports on in vivo observations of enzymatic reaction in living rats by employing a fiber-optic sensor. O-dealkylation of ethoxyresorufin to resorufin due to cytochrome P450 1A isozyme is successfully detected by observing fluorescent emission from resorufin through optical fibers.
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An optical fiber sensor for monitoring lighting in museum environments is presented. It is an extrinsic, intensity-modulated type sensor that uses a photochromic material as transducer. The prototype is operative at the Uffizi Gallery of Florence.
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At CiDRA we are developing transducers based on grating technology for a wide range of applications in the oil and gas industry not limited to downhole production monitoring, but also for seismic sensing, down-stream process monitoring, platform structural & pipeline monitoring, and other sensing requirements covered under the generic fields of exploration, production and transportation. This paper will explore the potential downwell monitoring applications of this technology in the oil & gas industry.
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We have developed a methane monitoring system using a 1.66 μm distributed-feedback semiconductor laser. The detection limit of the system is 70 ppb m in concentration pathlength product with the time constant of 1 s. This high sensitivity is achieved by the second-harmonic detection of wavelength modulation frequency of the laser whose center wavelength is stabilized on an the absorption line of methane.
The system was installed on a vehicle in combination with a positioning system and a mobile GIS that enabled to record and indicate gas leakage points from buried pipelines on the digital map at the real time.
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Brillouin gain spectrum distribution along an optical fiber is measured by a correlation-based technique with frequency-modulated pump and probe lightwaves. The spatial-resolution of 45cm is demonstrated, which cannot be realized by the conventional pulse-based technique.
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A multichannel fiber optic sensor has been developed to simultaneously measure the strain and temperature independently using Bragg gratings and Brillouin optical time domain analysis.
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On-site distributed measurements using a sensor based on stimulated Brillouin scattering are presented. Long fibre length can be used, so that a dense 2D or 3D measurement of strain or temperature can be obtained in large structure.
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We report on a novel system to detect the spontaneously backscattered Brillouin signal, to be used for distributed temperature sensing. We demonstrate a 10m spatial resolution over 16 km of fibre.
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Recent progress in ultrafast all-optical ThM transmission technologies is reviewed including optical short pulse generation, time-division multiplexing/demuitiplexing and timing extraction. A 400 Gbit/s TDM transmission experiment and a 120 Gbit/s prototype are shown and the possibility of Thitls TDM is discussed.
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This paper describes a scenario for upgrading an optical fiber monitoring system for fiber-optic subscriber networks, future targets with regard to system performance and cost and several technical applications for an advanced future system.
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In the last few years the vision of optical communication has evolved from high-capacity, point-to-point links toward full optical networking . Wavelength division multiplexing, originally developed to increase the capacity of the installed fiber base, now forms the basis of flexible optical networking for wide area networks, metropolitan area networks, and possibly local area and access networks. This vision has placed stringent demand on next-generation network elements. These include wavelength agile lasers, reconfigurable add/drop multiplexers, high port-count mux-demux devices, optical cross-connects, broadband amplifiers, gain and dispersion equalizers, in-line optical spectrum analyzers, high-capacity fiber and elements for network management. Several novel devices to meet these demands are emerging from the research laboratory and a number of experimental testbeds have demonstrated the viability of flexible, high-capacity optical networks of the future.
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All-optical wavelength division multiplexing (WDM) networks are very attractive since they are capable of processing broadband optical signals without converting to electronic signals. This overcomes the electrical bandwidth limitations.
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