This paper presents a scheme to support curtailing illegal activities that are carried out with the help of computers. The paper focuses on determining criminal character of a user by analyzing user’s interactions with the computer at the operating system level. Doing this at the operating system level gives an advantage of catching all interactions of the user with the computer. User interaction information is obtained during the system use and this information is classified using neural network. Neural network does the processing to obtain the criminal character of the user. A sample test was conducted on 200 different users (50 criminal users and 150 normal users). The results reported show that the proposed system is practical and accurate.

One of the main problems in developing Homeland Security technologies is the extremely large variety of threats that need to be answered. A possible approach to partially overcome this difficulty is to search for and understand the generic building blocks of Homeland Security technologies. These elements are presented along with examples of projects done at the Technion - Israel Institute of Technology, and a national consortium of industries and academia on detection of suspicious objects from a distance.

During times of emergency, the proper coordination and communication can save countless lives. To ensure that all proper state agencies, local agencies, and other stakeholders interact in the most efficient way possible during an emergency, an integrated plan must exist. The National ITS Architecture hosts an excellent platform for creating an efficient, integrated program for transportation systems. This architecture also focuses on transportation security. Using a tool such as the National ITS Architecture ensures that a regional security plan will properly coordinate with other regions for possible future integration. Because our transportation system provides vital links for both citizens and goods, its protection and enhancement through improved security can benefit all.

The Naval Research Laboratory (NRL) has developed an advanced architecture for connecting many maturing Through-The-Sensor (TTS) efforts for an end-to-end demonstration using the AQS-20 mine hunting sensor. The goal of TTS technologies is to exploit tactical sensors to characterize the battlespace environment for Navy Fleet Tactical Decision Aids (TDAs) with minimal impact on tactical systems. The AQS-20 Rapid Transition Process (RTP) will utilize the AQS-20 to demonstrate sensor data collection, processing, fusion, storage, distribution and use in a tactical decision aid. In recent years, NRL has shown that the AQS-20 can be used to obtain swath bathymetry and bottom sediment information in a single flight. In the AQS-20 RTP, these data will be processed and fused with historical databases to provide an improved environmental picture. The RTP will also utilize the Geophysical Data Base Variable resolution (GDBV) dynamic format for storing local datasets. The GDBV dynamic has been developed in prior years to provide an extensible, efficient data storage format for TTS systems. To provide the interconnectivity that is critical to Network Centric Warfare (NCW), the GDBV will be connected to the SPAWAR funded Tactical Environmental Data Services (TEDServices). To complete the flow of information from sensor to user, the RTP will transmit information to the MEDAL TDA through existing connections in The Naval Oceanographic Office’s (NAVOCEANO) Bottom Mapping Workstation (BMW). In addition, TEDServices will handle transmission of the AQS-20 data to NAVOCEANO who serves as the domain authority for oceanographic datasets in the U.S. Navy.

This paper describes the contribution by the National Safe Skies Alliance (Safe Skies) in operational testing of biometric access control systems under the guidance of the Transportation Security Administration (TSA). Safe Skies has been conducting operational tests of biometric access control systems on behalf of the TSA for approximately four years. The majority of this testing has occurred at the McGhee Tyson Airport (TYS) in Knoxville, Tennessee. Twelve separate biometric devices - eight fingerprint, facial, iris, hand geometry, and fingerprint and iris, have been tested to date. Tests were conducted at a TYS administrative door and different airports to evaluate the access control device under normal, abnormal, and attempt-to-defeat conditions.

Northwest Nuclear, LLC (NWN), the Applied Physics Institute (API) at Western Kentucky University, and Crisis Prep Services, LLC (CPS) have developed a tracking technology for first responders and security personnel based upon the AeroScout system (a product of AeroScout, Inc.) and technologies developed independently by NWN, API, and CPS. These systems provide location information using 802.11XXX architecture by measuring the time of arrival of packets from a set of active radio frequency (RF) tags to a set of location receivers. The system can track and graphically display the location on maps, drawings, floor plans or photographs of tagged items on any 802.11-compliant devices (PDAs, laptops, computers, WiFi telephones) situated both outside and inside structures. This location information would be vital for tracking the location of first responders, security, and other emergency personnel during rescue operations; particularly, under adverse conditions (e.g., fires). NWN, API, and CPS have been improving the precision of the location measurement to an uncertainty of 20 cm or 8 inches (under certain conditions) and also developing algorithms to increase the accuracy. NWN and API personnel have developed: 1) special tags which indicate tampering or sudden movement and transmit briefly under these conditions, and 2) permanent and portable systems which can be deployed rapidly. Additional software created by Crisis Prep Services, LLC allows response force personnel to be tracked and located inside a building in real time as well as use the software and tags as a training and rehersal system. The location of each person is depicted on a drawing of the building and is displayed on a laptop computer or any other browser capable device.

First responders to a major incident include many different agencies. These may include law enforcement officers, multiple fire departments, paramedics, HAZMAT response teams, and possibly even federal personnel such as FBI and FEMA. Often times multiple jurisdictions respond to the incident which causes interoperability issues with respect to communication and dissemination of time critical information. Accurate information from all responding sources needs to be rapidly collected and made available to the current on site responders as well as the follow-on responders who may just be arriving on scene. The creation of a common central database with a simple easy to use interface that is dynamically updated in real time would allow prompt and efficient information distribution between different jurisdictions. Such a system is paramount to the success of any response to a major incident. First responders typically arrive in mobile vehicles that are equipped with communications equipment. Although the first responders may make reports back to their specific home based command centers, the details of those reports are not typically available to other first responders who are not a part of that agencies infrastructure. Furthermore, the collection of information often occurs outside of the first responder vehicle and the details of the scene are normally either radioed from the field or written down and then disseminated after significant delay. Since first responders are not usually on the same communications channels, and the fact that there is normally a considerable amount of confusion during the first few hours on scene, it would be beneficial if there were a centralized location for the repository of time critical information which could be accessed by all the first responders in a common fashion without having to redesign or add significantly to each first responders hardware/software systems. Each first responder would then be able to provide information regarding their particular situation and such information could be accessed by all responding personnel. This will require the transmission of information provided by the first responder to a common central database system. In order to fully investigate the use of technology, it is advantageous to build a test bed in order to evaluate the proper hardware/software necessary, and explore the envisioned scenarios of operation before deployment of an actual system. This paper describes an ongoing effort at the University of New Hampshire to address these emergency responder needs.

The diversity of first responders and of asymmetric threats precludes the effectiveness of any single training syllabus. Just-in-time training (JITT) addresses this variability, but requires training content to be quickly tailored to the subject (the threat), the learner (the responder), and the infrastructure (the C2 chain from DHS to the responder’s equipment). We present a distributed system for personalized just-in-time training of first responders. The authoring and delivery of interactive rich media and simulations, and the integration of JITT with C2 centers, are demonstrated. Live and archived video, imagery, 2-D and 3-D models, and simulations are autonomously (1) aggregated from object-oriented databases into SCORM-compliant objects, (2) tailored to the individual learner’s training history, preferences, connectivity and computing platform (from workstations to wireless PDAs), (3) conveyed as secure and reliable MPEG-4 compliant streams with data rights management, and (4) rendered as interactive high-definition rich media that promotes knowledge retention and the refinement of learner skills without the need of special hardware. We review the object-oriented implications of SCORM and the higher level profiles of the MPEG-4 standard, and show how JITT can be integrated into - and improve the ROI of - existing training infrastructures, including COTS content authoring tools, LMS/CMS, man-in-the-loop simulators, and legacy content. Lastly, we compare the audiovisual quality of different streaming platforms under varying connectivity conditions.

September 11 2001 attacks and following Anthrax mailings introduced emergent need for developing technologies that can distinguish between man made and natural incidents in the public health level. With this objective in mind, government agencies started a funding effort to foster the design, development and implementation of such systems on a wide scale. But the outcomes have not met the expectations set by the resources invested. Multiple elements explain this phenomenon: As it has been frequent with technology, introduction of new surveillance systems to the workflow equation has occurred without taking into consideration the need for understanding and inclusion of deeper personal, psychosocial, organizational and methodological concepts. The environment, in which these systems are operating, is complex, highly dynamic, uncertain, risky, and subject to intense time pressures. Such 'difficult' environments are very challenging to the human as a decision maker. In this paper we will challenge these systems from the perspective of human factors design. We will propose employment of systematic situational awareness research for design and implementation of the next generation public health preparedness infrastructures. We believe that systems designed based on results of such analytical definition of the domain enable public health practitioners to effectively collect the most important cues from the environment, process, interpret and understand the information in the context of organizational objectives and immediate tasks at hand, and use that understanding to forecast the short term and long term impact of the events in the safety and well being of the community.

Law enforcement agencies play a key role in protecting the nation from and responding to terrorist attacks. Preventing terrorism and promoting the nation’s security is the Department of Justice’s number one strategic priority. This is reflected in its technology development efforts, as well as its operational focus. The National Institute of Justice (NIJ) is the national focal point for the research, development, test and evaluation of technology for law enforcement. In addition to its responsibilities in supporting day-to-day criminal justice needs in areas such as less lethal weapons and forensic science, NIJ also provides critical support for counter-terrorism capacity improvements in state and local law enforcement in several areas. The most important of these areas are bomb response, concealed weapons detection, communications and information technology, which together offer the greatest potential benefit with respect to improving the ability to law enforcement agencies to respond to all types of crime including terrorist acts. NIJ coordinates its activities with several other key federal partners, including the Department of Homeland Security’s Science and Technology Directorate, the Technical Support Working Group, and the Department of Defense.

This paper describes the further development of a patented, novel, low cost, microwave search detector using noise radar technology operating in the 27-40GHz range of frequencies, initially reported in SPIE 2004. Initial experiments have shown that plastic explosives, ceramics and plastic material hidden on the body can be detected with the system. This paper considers the basic physics of the technique and reports on the development of a initial prototype system for hand search of suspects and addresses the work carried out on optimisation of PD and FAR. The radar uses a novel lens system and the design and modelling of this for optimum depth of field of focus will be reported.

Novel, cost-efficient, and highly-sensitive IR imaging systems play an important role in homeland security functions. Technical limitations in the areas of sensitivity, contrast ratio, bandwidth and cost continue to constrain imaging capabilities. We have designed and prototyped a compact computer-piloted high sensitivity infrared imaging system. The device consists of infrared optics, cryostat, low-noise pre-amplifier, Analog-to-Digital hardware, feedback electronics, and unique image processing software. Important advantages of the developed system are: (i) Eight electronic channels are available for simultaneous registration of IR and visible images in multiple spectral ranges, (ii) Capability of real-time analysis such as comparing the “sensed” image with “reference” images from a database, (iii) High accuracy temperature measurement of multiple points on the image by referencing the radiation intensity from the object to a black body model, (iv) Image generation by real-time integration of images from multiple sensors operating from the visible to the terahertz range. The device was tested with a liquid-nitrogen-cooled, single-pixel HgCdTe detector for imaging in 8-12 microns range. The demonstrated examples of infrared imaging of concealed objects in static and dynamic modes include a hammer (metal head and wooden handle), plastic imitator of handguns hidden under clothes, powder in an envelope, and revealing complex wall structures under decorative plaster.

We present a general scheme for segmenting a radiographic image into polygons that correspond to visual features. This decomposition provides a vectorized representation that is a high-level description of the image. The polygons correspond to objects or object parts present in the image. This characterization of radiographs allows the direct application of several shape recognition algorithms to identify objects. In this paper we describe the use of constrained Delaunay triangulations as a uniform foundational tool to achieve multiple visual tasks, namely image segmentation, shape decomposition, and parts-based shape matching. Shape decomposition yields parts that serve as tokens representing local shape characteristics. Parts-based shape matching enables the recognition of objects in the presence of occlusions, which commonly occur in radiographs. The polygonal representation of image features affords the efficient design and application of sophisticated geometric filtering methods to detect large-scale structural properties of objects in images. Finally, the representation of radiographs via polygons results in significant reduction of image file sizes and permits the scalable graphical representation of images, along with annotations of detected objects, in the SVG (scalable vector graphics) format that is proposed by the world wide web consortium (W3C). This is a textual representation that can be compressed and encrypted for efficient and secure transmission of information over wireless channels and on the Internet. In particular, our methods described here provide an algorithmic framework for developing image analysis tools for screening cargo at ports of entry for homeland security.

The presentation discusses a new concept and a paradigm shift in biological, chemical and explosive sensor system design and deployment. From large, heavy, centralized and expensive systems to distributed wireless sensor networks utilizing miniature platforms (nodes) that are lightweight, low cost and wirelessly connected. These new systems are possible due to the emergence and convergence of new innovative radio, imaging, networking and sensor technologies. Miniature integrated radio-sensor networks, is a technology whose time has come. These network systems are based on large numbers of distributed low cost and short-range wireless platforms that sense and process their environment and communicate data thru a network to a command center. The recent emergence of chemical and explosive sensor technology based on silicon nanostructures, coupled with the fast evolution of low-cost CMOS imagers, low power DSP engines and integrated radio chips, has created an opportunity to realize the vision of autonomous wireless networks. These threat detection networks will perform sophisticated analysis at the sensor node and convey alarm information up the command chain. Sensor networks of this type are expected to revolutionize the ability to detect and locate biological, chemical, or explosive threats. The ability to distribute large numbers of low-cost sensors over large areas enables these devices to be close to the targeted threats and therefore improve detection efficiencies and enable rapid counter responses. These sensor networks will be used for homeland security, shipping container monitoring, and other applications such as laboratory medical analysis, drug discovery, automotive, environmental and/or in-vivo monitoring. Avaak’s system concept is to image a chromatic biological, chemical and/or explosive sensor utilizing a digital imager, analyze the images and distribute alarm or image data wirelessly through the network. All the imaging, processing and communications would take place within the miniature, low cost distributed sensor platforms. This concept however presents a significant challenge due to a combination and convergence of required new technologies, as mentioned above. Passive biological and chemical sensors with very high sensitivity and which require no assaying are in development using a technique to optically and chemically encode silicon wafers with tailored nanostructures. The silicon wafer is patterned with nano-structures designed to change colors ad patterns when exposed to the target analytes (TICs, TIMs, VOC). A small video camera detects the color and pattern changes on the sensor. To determine if an alarm condition is present, an on board DSP processor, using specialized image processing algorithms and statistical analysis, determines if color gradient changes occurred on the sensor array. These sensors can detect several agents simultaneously. This system is currently under development by Avaak, with funding from DARPA through an SBIR grant.

The remarkable sensitivity, compactness, low cost, low power-consumption, scalability, and versatility of microcantilever sensors make this technology among the most promising solutions for detection of chemical and biological agents, as well as explosives. The University of Nevada, Reno, and Nevada Nanotech Systems, Inc (NNTS) are currently developing a microcantilever-based detection system that will measure trace concentrations of explosives, toxic chemicals, and biological agents in air. A baseline sensor unit design that includes the sensor array, electronics, power supply and air handling has been created and preliminary demonstrations of the microcantilever platform have been conducted. The envisioned device would measure about two cubic inches, run on a small watch battery and cost a few hundred dollars. The device could be operated by untrained law enforcement personnel. Microcantilever-based devices could be used to “sniff out” illegal and/or hazardous chemical and biological agents in high traffic public areas, or be packaged as a compact, low-power system used to monitor cargo in shipping containers. Among the best detectors for such applications at present is the dog, an animal which is expensive, requires significant training and can only be made to work for limited time periods. The public is already accustomed to explosives and metal detection systems in airports and other public venues, making the integration of the proposed device into such security protocols straightforward.

In the year 2002, approximately 8 million maritime containers and 56,596 vessels entered the U.S. at more than 3,700 terminals and 301 ports of entry. Only 2% of these containers were inspected through x-ray equipment. More expensive radiation-detection equipments will be deployed to major U.S. seaports for use. Both x-ray and radiation-detection equipments conduct its inspection from the outside of a container, and cannot identify individual items inside. It also lacks the capability of item tracking and traceability along the shipping chain. A need exists for a system that can inspect containers without opening them on a mass scale at seaports. This paper describes a RFID and sensor based Container Content Visibility and Seaport Security Monitoring System under development that can fulfill this need. The System integrates the latest technologies in the fields of RFID, sensor, door tamper-proof device, and Wi-Fi communications to allow container contents to be identified and inspected automatically without opening it.

The detection and interdiction of biological and chemical warfare agents at point-of-entry military, government, and civilian facilities remains a high priority for security personnel. Commercial personnel and mail screening technologies for these harmful agents are still being developed and improved upon to meet all security client requirements. Millimeter-wave holographic imaging technology developed at the Pacific Northwest National Laboratory is an ideal sensor to interrogate objects concealed behind low dielectric barriers such as paper, cardboard, and clothing. It uses harmless millimeter waves to illuminate the object or person under surveillance. The waves penetrate through the low dielectric barrier and either reflects off or pass through the hidden object, depending on its material dielectric properties. The reflected signals are digitized and sent to high-speed computers to form high-resolution, three-dimensional (3-D) images. Feasibility imaging studies have been conducted to determine whether simulated biological or chemical agents concealed in mail packages or under clothing could be detected using holographic radar imaging techniques. The results of this study will be presented in this paper.

Interest in methods for obtaining surveillance information through walls has been increasing for both domestic and military security applications. While our previous through wall sensor development activities have demonstrated acceptable imaging performance by synthesizing a large antenna aperture from a portable, collapsible antenna array, these operational constraints have driven AKELA to a concept of operation where images are created by a distributed array of individual sensors. Each sensor is a high range resolution radar that can be either fixed in place or carried by an individual. The sensors are connected with a wireless communication network that distributes timing and control information, receives data, determines sensor location, and fuses the data from each sensor to generate imaging and motion detection information. We have developed a frequency agile radar operating between 500 MHz and 2 GHz that is the sensor element in our networked concept. Its performance has been tested on a variety of wall materials. Results of these tests show that this new radar has the capability to detect the breathing response of a stationary individual through a reinforced concrete wall at a distance of 6.5 meters.

The Air Force Research Laboratory Information Directorate (AFRL/IF), under sponsorship of the Department of Justice's (DOJ), National Institute of Justice (NIJ) Office of Science and Technology (OS&T), is currently developing and evaluating advanced Through the Wall Surveillance (TWS) technologies. These technologies are partitioned into two categories: inexpensive, handheld systems for locating an individual(s) behind a wall or door; and portable, personal computer (PC) based standoff systems to enable the determination of events during critical incident situations. The technologies utilized are primarily focused on active radars operating in the UHF, L, S (ultra wideband (UWB)), X, and Ku Bands. The data displayed by these systems is indicative of range (1 Dimension), or range and azimuth (2 Dimensions) to the moving individual(s). This paper will highlight the technologies employed in five (5) prototype TWS systems delivered to NIJ and AFRL/IF for test and evaluation. It will discuss the systems backgrounds, applications, current states of evolution, and future plans for enhanced assessment.

Recent terrorist activities and law-enforcement situations involving hostage situations underscore the need for effective through-wall imaging. Current building interior imaging systems are based on short-pulse waveforms, which require specially designed antennas to subdue unwanted ringing. In addition, periodically transmitted pulses of energy are easily recognizable by the intelligent adversary who may employ appropriate countermeasures to confound detection. A coherent polarimetric random noise radar architecture is being developed based on UWB technology and software defined radio, which has great promise in its ability to covertly image obscured targets. The main advantages of the random noise radar lie in two aspects: first, random noise waveform has an ideal “thumbtack” ambiguity function, i.e., its down range and cross range resolution can be separately controlled, thus providing unambiguous high resolution imaging at any distance; second, random noise waveform is inherently low probability of intercept (LPI) and low probability of detection (LPD), i.e., it is immune from detection, jamming, and interference. Thus, it is an ideal candidate sensor for covert imaging of obscured regions in hostile environments. The coherency in the system can be exploited to field a fully-polarimetric system that can take advantage of polarization features in target recognition. Moving personnel can also be detected using Doppler processing. Simulation studies are used to analyze backscattered signals from the walls, and humans and other targets behind the walls. Real-time data processing shows human activity behind the wall and human target tracking. The high resolution provides excellent multipath and clutter rejection.

A noncoherent through-the-wall radar system approach, based on trilateration technique, is presented. This approach involves multiple independent monostatic radar units and as such, provides flexibility in positioning the units with various stand-off distances and inter-element spacing. We demonstrate the proposed noncoherent system approach in an indoor environment using both simulated and real data. The results show that the radar is able to detect and locate multiple targets behind walls.

This paper reports the development of a prototype autonomous surveillance microsystem AMIGO that can be used for remote surveillance. Each AMIGO unit is equipped with various sensors and electronics. These include passive infrared motion sensor, acoustic sensor, uncooled IR camera, electronic compass, global positioning system (GPS), and spread spectrum wireless transceiver. The AMIGO unit was configured to multipoint (AMIGO units) to point (base station) communication mode. In addition, field trials were conducted with AMIGO in various scenarios. These scenarios include personnel and vehicle intrusion detection (motion or sound) and target imaging; determination of target GPS position by triangulation; GPS position real time tracking; entrance event counting; indoor surveillance; and aerial surveillance on a radio controlled model plane. The architecture and test results of AMIGO will be presented.

This paper introduces a novel design of "bridge style" fiber-optic weigh-in-motion (WIM) sensor using fiber Bragg grating (FBG) technology. Compared with other designs of fiber-optic WIM sensors, the bridge-style design is reliable, sensitive and can bear more loads. With these advantages, the bridge-style WIM sensor is specifically suitable for heavy vehicle dynamic weighing, especially for military vehicles, cargos and equipments. Experiment is conducted and the results show good repeatability and sensitivity under large loads. The minimum achieved resolvable weight is 7.1 kilograms. Finally, WIM sensor on-site installation method is suggested.

This paper presents an automated decentralized surveillance system for the problem of tracking multiple mobile ground targets with no signature in a bounded area. The system consists of unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) and unattended fixed ground sensors (UGSs) with limited communication and detection range that are deployed in the area of interest. Each component of the system (UAV and/or Sensor) is completely autonomous and programmed to scan the area searching for targets and share its knowledge with other components within communication range. UAV scheduling of the areas to search is stochastic and the characterizing probability distributions are determined through hypotheses of consistent tracks of target observations. Such hypotheses are formulated by a client subsystem called Process Query System, which is queried with streams of incoming observations of targets and stochastic models of their kinematics. The purpose of this work is also to provide a quantitative measure of the situational awareness of the monitoring system in relation to the accuracy of the target models and the degree of decentralization of the control.

Planning Systems Incorporated has developed a System for the Effective Control of URban Environment Security, (SECURES) which detects and localizes gunshots acoustically. This is achieved by deploying a grid of acoustic sensors mounted to utility poles or buildings in the area plagued by gunfire. Localization is determined by a central processing unit which receives information about acoustic events via radio. One key question faced in the deployment of the sensors is whether all the desired area is going to be covered effectively. Until recently the required location and density of the sensors was determined through educated estimation by experienced staff. The role of the Acoustic Urban Evaluator (AUE 1.0) is to aid with determining the optimal geometry of the sensor grid, reduce coverage uncertainty and minimize the number of necessary sensors for effective coverage. AUE is a physics-based acoustic propagation model that takes into account the propagation of a pulse above a finite impedance plane as well as diffraction around obstacles. Assuming a source (shooter) situated anywhere in the monitored area, AUE computes the transfer function and the peak Sound Pressure Level (SPL) for all possible source-sensor pairs. Based on the peak SPL it is determined whether the shooters can be localized. The paper describes the model as well as the implementation details.

The Gunfire Detection System (GDS) is an acoustic passive sensor designed to rapidly detect, locate, and report on hostile fire from small arms upon detection of a blast wave from a bullet exiting the gun barrel and/or the supersonic wave of the bullet. Upon the detection of the muzzle blast and/or the acoustic shock wave caused by the moving bullet the GDS notifies the user and displays the azimuth, elevation and range to the gunfire origin (shooter). This information allows the GDS user to swiftly move, return fire or take other appropriate action. The paper presented examines the militarization process of a Commercial Off The Shelf (COTS) item and provides lessons learned.

This paper provides a detailed analysis of the most specific parameters of gunshot signatures through models as well as through real data. The models for the different contributions to gunshot typical signature (shock and muzzle blast) are presented and used to discuss the variation of measured signatures over the different environmental conditions and shot configurations. The analysis is followed by a description of the performance requirements for gunshot detection systems, from sniper detection that was the main concern 10 years ago, to the new and more challenging conditions faced in today operations. The work presented examines the process of how systems are deployed and used as well as how the operational environment has changed. The main sources of false alarms and new threats such as RPGs and mortars that acoustic gunshot detection systems have to face today are also defined and discussed. Finally, different strategies for reducing false alarms are proposed based on the acoustic signatures. Different strategies are presented through various examples of specific missions ranging from vehicle protection to area protection. These strategies not only include recommendation on how to handle acoustic information for the best efficiency of the acoustic detector but also recommends some add-on sensors to enhance system overall performance.

Boomerang is an acoustic system installed on military vehicles that is designed to detect relative shooter azimuth/range/elevation from incoming small arms fire. It performs passive acoustic detection and computer-based signal processing. Aural and visual alerts are used to 1) inform vehicle occupants that a bullet has passed within close proximity to the vehicle and 2) indicate the position of the shooter relative to the vehicle’s direction of travel. Boomerang operates when the vehicle is stationary or moving (no motion compensation) using a single, compact, mast-mounted array of microphones. The system is calibrated to detect infantry small arms. This calibration, however, does not preclude the system from detecting larger and smaller supersonic rounds. In this paper, we discuss the design, development, testing and production of 50 Boomerang I systems over a 65-day period in late 2003/early 2004. These systems were deployed during Operation Iraqi Freedom II with Marine and Army units. Feedback from operational units identified specific deficiencies and desired improvements that were incorporated into a system re-design effort, Boomerang II. The Boomerang II system has been extensively tested for performance and environmental fitness regarding RF compatibility with tactical radios (SINCGARS), heat, cold, shock and vibration. The US Army Aberdeen Proving Grounds conducted successful RF compatibility tests, road tests and 'live fire' testing. Summary results of open field 'live fire' static tests are presented as well as performance results on a remote-controlled HMMWV operating at 45 MPH.

The objective of this study was to demonstrate proof of concept for the Integrated Nano-Technologies BioDetect Bacillus anthracis electronic DNA sensor. B. anthracis Ames strain DNA was successfully detected by the formation of DNA bridges on the sensor. The bridges were coated with metal, resulting in a significant drop in electrical resistance. In this small test, at a relatively high DNA concentration, the overall accuracy of the sensor was 90.7%. The technology shows significant promise for future development as a bio-agent detection system.

In light of the current state of detection technologies designed to meet the current threat from biological agents, the need for a low-cost and lightweight sensor is clear. Such a sensor based on optical detection, with real time responses and no consumables, is possible. Devices arising from the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency's (DARPA) Semiconductor UV Optical Sources (SUVOS) are the enabling technology. These sources are capable of emitting UV wavelengths known to excite fluorescence from biological agent particles while costing a few dollars apiece and consuming low power. These devices are exploited in the TAC-Bio Sensor. A unique optical design is used to collect the usable portion of the LED emission and focus it into the probing region of the sensor. To compensate for the low UV power density relative to UV lasers, the TAC-Bio utilizes a unique opposed flow configuration to increase the interaction between particles and the UV beam. The current TAC-Bio sensor testbed is capable of detecting fluorescence Bacillus globigii (BG, an anthrax simulant) spore agglomerates down to 5 microns in diameter. Ongoing work is focusing on increasing signal to noise so that smaller particles, possibly single spores, can be detected, as well as on including additional data channels, such as light scattering, to increase selectivity of the sensor.

The objective of this research is to design and develop a multi-sensor capable of fast detection and of recognition optimization of the techniques for used for quantification of TATP by Pattern Recognition. In particular, the long range goal of the research is to use sensor fusion and sensor “talking” modalities to couple Stand Off detectors with Chemical Point detectors for detection of airborne chemical agents and detection of Improvised Explosive Devices (IEDs). Vibrational spectroscopy techniques are very fast and can be used for real time detection. Good results have been obtained with various target molecular (chemical) systems such as TATP, TNT and DNT. Samples of TATP were detected and quantified in air, in solution and in solid phase on surfaces by different techniques. FTIR Spectroscopy and GS-MS were used to generate new analytical procedures for detection and analysis of the organic peroxide. These procedures were compared and taken to their limits by optimization with Chemometrics, Partial Least Squares (PLS), and Discriminant Analysis (DA).

Silver colloids have been used for detecting single molecules in solution with high sensitivity and molecular specificity. Single particle detection is of great scientific and practical interest in many fields such as chemistry, biology, medicine and environmental science. We report the Surface Enhanced Resonance Raman Scattering (SERRS) spectrum of derivatized dye-TNT and DNT at a concentration level of 1x10-9 M in silver colloids at pH 9 at 532 nm for three 10 second intervals at different power intensities by suppressing the solvent of the colloid and obtaining nanoparticle to be diluted in another solvent or for mixing with another compound that has affinity for DNT. The azo structures obtained by derivatizing the TNT and DNT are highly colored derivatives, which contain a functionality that will enable a strong bond with the metal surface. The objective of this study is to modify silver colloids by using compounds such as adenine and the modified compounds are structurally similar to the ones that are going to be further studied in the colloid systems and were utilized for SERRS to increase the Raman signal from TNT and DNT.

A reactive chromophore developed at MIT exhibits sensitive and selective detection of surrogates for G-class nerve agents. This reporter acts by reacting with the agent to form an intermediate that goes through an internal cyclization reaction. The reaction locks the molecule into a form that provides a strong fluorescent signal. Using a fluorescent sensor platform, Nomadics has demonstrated rapid and sensitive detection of reactive simulants such as diethyl chloro-phosphate (simulant for sarin, soman, and related agents) and diethyl cyanophosphate (simulant for tabun). Since the unreacted chromophore does not fluoresce at the excitation wavelength used for the cyclized reporter, the onset of fluo-rescence can be easily detected. This fluorescence-based detection method provides very high sensitivity and could enable rapid detection at permissible exposure levels. Tests with potential interferents show that the reporter is very selective, with responses from only a few highly toxic, electrophilic chemicals such as phosgene, thionyl chloride, and strong acids such as HF, HCl, and nitric acid. Dimethyl methyl phosphonate (DMMP), a common and inactive simu-lant for other CW detectors, is not reactive enough to generate a signal. The unique selectivity to chemical reactivity means that a highly toxic and hazardous chemical is present when the reporter responds and illustrates that this sensor can provide very low false alarm rates. Current efforts focus on demonstrating the sensitivity and range of agents and toxic industrial chemicals detected with this reporter as well as developing additional fluorescent reporters for a range of chemical reactivity classes. The goal is to produce a hand-held sensor that can sensitively detect a broad range of chemical warfare agent and toxic industrial chemical threats.

The characterization of Tetracetone Tetraperoxide (TRATRP), Triacetone Triperoxide (TATP), Diacetone Diperoxide (DADP), Tricyclohexylidene Triperoxide and Dibenzo Diperoxide using GC-MS, GC-FTIR, FTIR, FT-NMR and Raman Spectroscopy is reported. These compounds were synthesized, purified and characterized in the laboratory in order to develop methodologies for their trace detection. During this study, TATP has been synthesized by different methods obtaining high purity and good yields, even using common household products. DADP synthetic routes reported in the literature were verified. The methods described, including those that produce mixtures with TATP and other peroxides forms were also tested. This study will also focused in the preparation of other cyclic peroxides, including Hexamethelene Triperoxide Diamine (HMTD) and different forms of cyclic peroxides from ketones. This issue of thermodynamic versus kinetic control of secondary products of all syntheses and the effect of temperature in the distribution sub products of the syntheses was also addressed. A vibrational differentiation study of was carried out. Differences were found computationally in the υ(O-O), υ(C-O), δ(CH3-C) and δ(C-O) for Raman and IR bands and retention time and fragment patron for GC-MS and GC-FT-IR.

Surface Enhanced Raman Scattering (SERS) is normally obtained from nanoactive surfaces or colloids of group II-B metals, in particular of silver and gold. In this study another type of nanosurface has been explored seeking more reproducible Raman spectra than those obtained from metallic substrates. Compounds of elements of the fourth transition period were tested for SERS analysis of nitroexplosives. Titanium (IV) oxides were found to give good Raman Enhanced signals of target molecules. TNT and DNT increased their signal intensities for this technique and were evaluated for the increase in different excitation sources. Laser lines at 785, 532 and 514.5 nm were evaluated to determine relative SERS cross sections for various vibrational bands of the target nitroexplosives. Polymorphism seems to play an important role in the Raman signal enhancement when using metal oxides: high rutile percent mixtures with anatase gave higher Raman scattered signal enhancement.

Precision micro-dispensing based upon ink jet technology has been used in medical diagnostics since the early nineties, and now is moving into a wide range of applications. Ink-jet printing technology can reproducibly dispense micro-droplets of fluid with diameters of 15 to 100 μm (2pl to 5nl) at rates of 0 - 25,000 per second from a single drop-on-demand printhead. The deposition is non-contact, data-driven and can dispense a wide range of fluids. It is a key enabling technology in the development of Bio-MEMS devices, Sensors, Micro-fluidic devices and Micro-optical systems. In this paper, we will discuss the use of this technology for real time calibration and testing of chemical sensors. The technology is based upon test systems developed for olfaction testing which are capable of precisely dispensing chemical aromas in concentration that vary over 6 orders of magnitude. The droplets of each chemical are thermally converted into a vapor that is fed directly into the sensor under test.

We have developed a class of aperture coding schemes for Remote Raman Spectrometers (RRS) that remove the traditional trade-off between throughput and spectral resolution. As a result, the size of the remote interrogation region can be driven by operational, rather than optical considerations. We present theoretical arguments on the performance of these codes and present data from where we have utilized these codes in other spectroscopy efforts.

Vehicle-borne improvised explosive devices (VBIEDs) have become the weapon of choice for insurgents in Iraq. At the same time, these devices are becoming increasingly sophisticated and effective. VBIEDs can be difficult to detect during visual inspection of vehicles. This is especially true when explosives have been hidden behind a vehicle’s panels, inside seat cushions, under floorboards, or behind cargo. Even though the explosive may not be visible, vapors of explosive emanating from the device are often present in the vehicle, but the current generation of trace detection equipment has not been sensitive enough to detect these low concentrations of vapor. This paper presents initial test results using the Nomadics Fido sensor for detection of VBIEDs. The sensor is a small, explosives detector with unprecedented levels of sensitivity for detection of nitroaromatic explosives. Fido utilizes fluorescence quenching of novel polymer materials to detect traces of explosive vapor emanating from targets containing explosives. These materials, developed by collaborators at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), amplify the quenching response that occurs when molecules of explosive bind to films of the polymer. These materials have enabled development of sensors with performance approaching that of canines trained to detect explosives. The ability of the sensor to detect explosives in vehicles and on persons who have recently been in close proximity to explosives has recently been demonstrated. In these tests, simulated targets were quickly and easily detected using a Fido sensor in conjunction with both direct vapor and swipe sampling methods. The results of these tests suggest that chemical vapor sensing has utility as a means of screening vehicles for explosives at checkpoints and on patrols.

A 16-channel, cross-reactive remote infrared chemical sensor for detection of toxic industrial chemicals in fixed-location applications is being developed. The outputs of the 16 channels, uncooled pyroelectric detectors fitted with infrared bandpass filters, can be viewed as a coarse spectrum of the chemical(s) in the field of view. This spectrum must be unmixed, wherein the identity and optical depth of the chemical(s) are estimated by processing the spectrum with a library of known signatures for the chemical(s) of interest. Several unmixing methods are presented, including enhancements to linear projection methods, parameterization (curve fitting) of the system response, and non-linear, iterative techniques. It is found that linear methods and simple curve parameterizations produce excessive unmixing errors. Higher-order parameterization and iterative methods provide much better estimates, with the latter being more computationally intensive. The suitability of the methods for the application at hand is discussed.

Given the heightened awareness and response to threats posed to national security, it is important to evaluate, and if possible, improve current measures being taken to ensure our nation’s safety. With terrorism so prevalent in our thoughts, the possible risk of nuclear attacks remains a major concern. Portal monitors are one type of technology that may be used to combat this risk. Their purpose is to detect nuclear materials and, if found, alert first responders to such a discovery. Los Alamos National Laboratory (LANL) is currently working on an alternative to these costly portal monitors through the Distributed Sensor Network (DSN) project. In collaboration with the University of New Mexico (UNM), this project aims to develop distributed networks of heterogeneous sensors with the ability to process data in-situ in order to produce real-time decisions regarding the presence of radioactive material within the network. The focus of the work described in this paper has been the evaluation of current commercial products available for application deployments, as well as the development of a sensor network in simulation to reduce key deployment issues.

Sensor network is generally composed of a set of sensors with limited computation capability and power supply. Thus, a well-defined allocation scheme is essential for maintaining the whole sensor network. This paper investigates the dynamic resource allocation problem in a sensor and robot networks for mobile target tracking tasks. Most of sensors will be in sleep mode except for the ones that can contribute for tracking. The sensor network resource allocation is achieved by a hierarchical structure--clustering. Upon detecting an interested event, a set of sensors form a cluster. Only cluster members will be activated during the tracking task. The cluster headship and membership will be updated based on the target's movement properties. In this paper, the clustering algorithm considers sensing area with communication holes and a routing tree is set up within the cluster. For a cluster with communication and/or sensing holes, mobile sensors will be deployed to enhance the sensing and communication capability in the clustering area. Simulations have been used to verify the proposed algorithm.

General Sensing Systems (GSS) has been successfully developing a new sensor for the past several years. Herein we describe the lab and field testing of this small size, extremely lost cost and high performance seismic sensor intended for up-to-date security and military systems. This article delivers the latest results of the wide-ranging laboratory and field tests of this new sensor. During the testing, GSS’s new sensor was compared with the leading commercially available geophones, the GS-14-L3 and GS-20DX geophones produced by Geo Space Corporation. The obtained results confirm our pilot lab testing [1] in terms of the advantages of new sensor. The results show that the new GSS sensor has an expanding frequency response range in both the low and high frequency areas. The GSS sensor also has the highest sensitivity among all the compared geophones as well as a lower sensitivity threshold. This point is significant for real signal interpretation in heavy noise environments and is a significant advantage of the GSS sensor’s performance in comparison to that of existing commercial geophones. The comparative field test results show that the GSS sensor allows to detect footstep signal by almost 3 times larger distance between the sensor and walking person. This is crucial for increased detection range of seismic-acoustic reconnaissance systems. In general, the results show it is possible to manufacture very small and inexpensive seismic sensors with significantly improved performance characteristics.

While there is much interest in human-carriable mobile robots for defense/security applications, existing examples are still too large/heavy, and there are not many successful small human-deployable mobile ground robots, especially ones that can survive being thrown/dropped. We have developed a prototype small short-range teleoperated indoor reconnaissance/surveillance robot that is semi-autonomous. It is self-powered, self-propelled, spherical, and meant to be carried and thrown by humans into indoor, yet relatively unstructured, dynamic environments. The robot uses multiple channels for wireless control and feedback, with the potential for inter-robot communication, swarm behavior, or distributed sensor network capabilities. The primary reconnaissance sensor for this prototype is visible-spectrum video. This paper focuses more on the software issues, both the onboard intelligent real time control system and the remote user interface. The communications, sensor fusion, intelligent real time controller, etc. are implemented with onboard microcontrollers. We based the autonomous and teleoperation controls on a simple finite state machine scripting layer. Minimal localization and autonomous routines were designed to best assist the operator, execute whatever mission the robot may have, and promote its own survival. We also discuss the advantages and pitfalls of an inexpensive, rapidly-developed semi-autonomous robotic system, especially one that is spherical, and the importance of human-robot interaction as considered for the human-deployment and remote user interface.

We present in this paper an investigation on a special class of wireless sensor networks for monitoring critical infrastructures that may extend for hundreds of miles in distances. Such networks are fundamentally different from traditional sensor networks in that the sensor nodes in this class of networks are deployed along narrowly elongated geographical areas and form a chain-type topology. Based on careful analysis of existing sensor network architectures, we first demonstrate the needs to develop new architecture and networking protocols to match the unique topology of chain-type sensor networks. We then propose hierarchical network architecture that consists of clusters of sensor nodes to enable the chain-type sensor networks to be scalable to cover typically long range of infrastructure with tolerable delay in network-wide data collection. To maintain energy efficient operations and maximize the lifetime for such a chain-type sensor network, we devise a smart strategy for the deployment of cluster heads. Protocols for network initialization and seamless operations of the chain-type sensor networks are also developed to match the proposed hierarchical architecture and cluster head deployment strategy. Simulations have been carried out to verify the performance of the hierarchical architecture, the smart node deployment strategy, and the corresponding network initialization and operation protocols.

This paper will review the work being performed at McQ on the development of a family of truly low cost unattended ground sensor systems using conventional technology and manufacturing techniques. The goal of this work is to produce tactically useable sensors that can be manufactured in large quantities (1-10M units/year) for $10 each. Secondary goals are small size (10-50 cm^3), lightweight (15-60gm), moderate lifetimes (48-72hrs) and moderate communications ranges (10-1000m). Our research indicates that sensors meeting these performance metrics can be manufactured today using conventional manufacturing techniques. The paper will review the basic system architecture proposed, projected sensor performance and projected manufacturing costs.

This paper describes the Comprehensive Munitions and Sensor Server (CMS2) simulation software, its representation of Unattended Ground Sensors (UGS), Intelligent Munition Systems (IMS) and mines, and its application to high visibility US Army programs. The Comprehensive Munitions and Sensor Server (CMS2) provides a high-fidelity representation of mines, Intelligent Munitions Systems (IMS), and Unattended Ground Sensors (UGS) to support a broad range of engineering and operational simulation applications. Mine types modeled by CMS2 include conventional anti-personnel and anti-tank, side attack, command activated and individual and networked smart munitions. Sensor technologies modeled include, but are not limited to, imaging IR, acoustic, seismic, and magnetic. Since the CMS2 software is predominantly implemented as parametric models and plug-in libraries, the sensors, munitions, mines and their components can be configured or even added at run time. CMS2 interfaces with an imaging sensor simulation and a Human-In-The-Loop (HITL) controller application that allows for the control of IMS and UGS systems simulated by CMS2. The controller, in conjunction with the imaging sensor simulation, provides static visible and infrared (IR) images of the target area of interest to the operator. CMS2 typically complements the OneSAF Testbed within force-on-force simulations. Because of its modularity and software reuse, the CMS2 simulation is utilized extensively to support programs such as TRADOC’s Unit of Action experimentation, Intelligent Munitions System (IMS), Tactical Unattended Ground Sensor (T-UGS), Networked Sensors for the Future Force (NSFF) program and the Future Combat Systems (FCS). This paper will describe how some of these programs are using CMS2 to support the development and acquisition of UGS and IMS technologies.

The roles of sensor systems in the current and Future Force have necessarily affected an evolution of the requirements for the distribution and management of sensor data. No longer do the closed, stove pipe solutions of the past come close to meeting the interoperability needs. New sensor technologies and deployment concepts have pushed sensors into the network centric world and have simultaneously presented a requirement for joint standard digital communications capable of dynamic discovery of nodes on the network, runtime reconfiguration of sensing devices, multi-connection support, and sensor to sensor direct communications. To meet these evolving sensor system data management, interface and communications requirements, a team of Government and defense contractors has collaborated to define a component-wise sensor interface architecture and messaging standard. The core component of this sensor interoperability architecture is the proposed Sensor Data Link (SDL) messaging standard. SDL provides a flexible framework of joint standard data representations, messages, and common processes for current and Future Force sensors.

A very large acoustic microphone array is described for use in the audio frequency band from 300 to 3000 Hz. The array used constant aperture processing to provide 10 wavelengths of aperture over the entire band, resulting in a narrow but constant beamwidth for all frequencies. The array was electronically steerable in azimuth over a +/- 80-degree range with no grating lobes. Several different embodiments have been constructed, and one design featured steerability in both the elevation and azimuth planes. This array used vertical subarrays at each horizontal array station that were pre-steered in elevation using a novel analog delay-and-sum beamformer. Signal processing was accomplished using a desktop PC. The large number of microphones used to construct the arrays demonstrated exceptional wind noise averaging in outdoor conditions. Array details, processing methodology, and test results are presented.

This paper studies two interconnected problems in mobile sensor network deployment, the optimal placement of heterogeneous mobile sensor platforms for cost-efficient and reliable coverage purposes, and the self-organizable deployment. We first develop an optimal placement algorithm based on a "mosaicked technology" such that different types of mobile sensors form a mosaicked pattern uniquely determined by the popularity of different types of sensor nodes. The initial state is assumed to be random. In order to converge to the optimal state, we investigate the swarm intelligence (SI)-based sensor movement strategy, through which the randomly deployed sensors can self-organize themselves to reach the optimal placement state. The proposed algorithm is compared with the random movement and the centralized method using performance metrics such as network coverage, convergence time, and energy consumption. Simulation results are presented to demonstrate the effectiveness of the mosaic placement and the SI-based movement.

Inflation combined with the added burden of homeland security requirements, is increasing pressure on local law enforcement budgets and manpower resources. The problem is: how can law enforcement agencies fulfill all of their requirements? How can they respond to these requirements, including homeland security, with limited manpower? Civil Rights considerations also place constraints on law enforcement. One possible solution is the Remote Law Enforcement Surveillance System (RLESS) concept. RLESS makes more efficient use of existing manpower while avoiding infringement on civil liberties. RLESS provides the capability for unattended stakeout and surveillance. Many stakeout or surveillance operations are conducted by vice, homicide, organized crime or other task forces. Lasting from days to weeks. Many large drug stings last months involving many persons of interest. A single surveillance mission usually involves a minimum of two persons X 3 shifts per day conducting active observation, equating to 48 man-hours per day. Their tasks include watching, listening, and documenting with photography. Recent military developments have included new technologies and techniques that enable remote unattended observation of areas or points of interest. This capability is now available to support law enforcement stakeouts, thereby significantly minimizes the stresses on manpower.

In this paper we present the architecture of our network security monitoring infrastructure based on a Process Query System (PQS). PQS offers a new and powerful way of efficiently processing data streams, based on process descriptions that are submitted as queries. In this case the data streams are familiar network sensors, such as Snort, Netfilter, and Tripwire. The process queries describe the dynamics of network attacks and failures, such as worms, multistage attacks, and router failures. Using PQS the task of monitoring enterprise class networks is simplified, offering a priority-based GUI to the security administrator that clearly outlines events that require immediate attention. The PQS-Net system is deployed on an unsecured production network; the system has successfully detected many diverse attacks and failures.

A Process Query System (PQS) is a generic software system that can be used in tracking applications across a variety of domains. As in most other tracking systems, multiple hypotheses about which reports are assigned to which tracks must be maintained. Since the number of hypotheses that are possible can be exponential in the number of reports, some technique for managing a pool of the best candidate hypotheses must be used. In this paper, we compare a genetic algorithm approach and a hypothesis clustering approach with the basic top-H pruning policy. Metrics for comparison include performance accuracy and computational requirements. Simulations show positive results for both of these approaches and suggest that the clustering approach has the best overall performance. Other experiments indicate that the genetic algorithm technique can converge over time to the ground truth.

Fiber Optic Coupled/Grazing Angle Probe Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy has made possible to develop new methods for detection of traces of chemical compounds on surfaces. Thermal Inkjet Technology is able to deposit very small amounts of chemical compounds, including energetic materials, in a specific location on a surface. Aliquots of TNT solutions were deposited on stainless steel film. A thin coating of TNT can be produced by controlling the concentration of TNT, the number of drops dispensed and the distribution of drops over the surface. A Vector 22, a Bruker Optics FTIR fiber coupled to a Remspec Corp. grazing angle head was used for the experiments. The spectra were recorded at 4 cm^-1 resolution and 50 scans. The results of the experiments gave intense absorption bands in the fingerprint region of the infrared spectra that were used for quantification. Chemometrics routines were applied in the enhancement of the quantitative analysis.

There is a critical need to conduct operational interviews in a wide range of interview and assessment situations, including conventional structured interviews as well as cases in which subjects are unconstrained. Current progress of three advanced prototype instrument development projects looking at non-contact sensing of human physiology to determine the veracity of human communications are presented. These include: 1) Thermal Facial Screening (TFS); 2) Turnkey Remote Assessment of Concealed Knowledge using Eye movement Recordings (TRACKER); and 3) Laser Doppler Vibrometry (LDV). Signals are measured with superior technical quality, in comparison to those obtained with conventional contact methods. Depending on the operational need and the specific context, these instruments can be used as stand-alone techniques or integrated into a multi-modal evaluation of human credibility. Thus, a comprehensive assessment using multiple physiological response systems is possible. A description each technique, the current state of these research efforts, and an overview of the potential for each of these emerging technologies will be provided.

New machine learning strategies are proposed for person identification which can be used in several biometric modalities such as friction ridges, handwriting, signatures and speech. The biometric or forensic performance task answers the question of whether or not a sample belongs to a known person. Two different learning paradigms are discussed: person-independent (or general learning) and person-dependent (or person-specific learning). In the first paradigm, learning is from a general population of ensemble of pairs, each of which is labelled as being from the same person or from different persons- the learning process determines the range of variations for given persons and between different persons. In the second paradigm the identity of a person is learnt when presented with multiple known samples of that person- where the variation and similarities within a particular person are learnt. The person-specific learning strategy is seen to perform better than general learning (5% higher performace with signatures). Improvement of person-specific performance with increasing number of samples is also observed.

Criminals who use computers to commit crimes often hide the fruits of the commission of those crimes. Hiding files on a computer can take on many forms, from file names and extensions to more technical methods such as encryption and steganography. Encryption and steganography have the potential to severely impede the recovery of digital evidence. We discuss encryption and steganography below and describe potential methods of coping with each. The techniques we discuss require no special knowledge or advanced hardware or software; however, the use of these techniques does not guarantee the recovery of obfuscated information.

An ex-situ technique for the drive-independent forensic recovery of data from failed hard drives has been developed. For drives which have suffered damage from a head crash or other mechanical problems and cannot be resuscitated using standard software, firmware, or part-replacement techniques, there is currently no commercially available means to recover the data, even though the files are still stored on the magnetic disks. Here, we report on the results of a spinstand imaging based technology, where the failed disk is removed from its native drive, placed on a spin-stand, and scanned with a giant magnetoresistive head. After track centering, track following, signal detection, data decoding, error correction, and sector mapping, the otherwise unrecoverable data can be retrieved to the computer operating system. Spin-stand based data imaging has the potential to provide recovery at data rates approaching those in the native drive and is a truly drive-independent method to recover hard disk data in a time-efficient manner.

Smokeless Powders are a class of propellants that were developed in the late 19th century to replace black powder; it has been used as an explosive in shotguns, rifles, firearms and many other larger caliber weapons. These propellants can be placed into one of three different classes according to the chemical composition of their primary energetic ingredients. Advance equipment have been designed and used for the detection of explosives devices and compounds potentially energetic. In this research we are developing an analytical methodology to detect different formulation of smokeless powders: Alliant-American Select, Alliant-Bullseye, and Alliant-Red Dot using the ion mobility spectrometry (IMS) technique. We used different surfaces like computer diskettes, CD’s, book covers and plastics to study their adsorption/desorption process. Using micropipettes, we delivered solutions with different amounts of Smokeless Powders from a 1000 ppm solution and deposit it on various types of filters to make a calibration curve. Several amounts of Smokeless Powder were deposited to the different surfaces and collected with filter paper. The samples were desorbed directly from the filter to the instrument inlet port. Subsequently, the percentage of explosive recovered was calculated.

In this project, a new set of multiplexed PCR reactions has been developed for the analysis of degraded DNA. These DNA markers, known as Miniplexes, utilize primers that have shorter amplicons for use in short tandem repeat (STR) analysis of degraded DNA. In our work we have defined six of these new STR multiplexes, each of which consists of 3 to 4 reduced size STR loci, and each labeled with a different fluorescent dye. When compared to commercially available STR systems, reductions in size of up to 300 basepairs are possible. In addition, these newly designed amplicons consist of loci that are fully compatible with the the national computer DNA database known as CODIS. To demonstrate compatibility with commercial STR kits, a concordance study of 532 DNA samples of Caucasian, African American, and Hispanic origin was undertaken There was 99.77% concordance between allele calls with the two methods. Of these 532 samples, only 15 samples showed discrepancies at one of 12 loci. These occurred predominantly at 2 loci, vWA and D13S317. DNA sequencing revealed that these locations had deletions between the two primer binding sites. Uncommon deletions like these can be expected in certain samples and will not affect the utility of the Miniplexes as tools for degraded DNA analysis. The Miniplexes were also applied to enzymatically digested DNA to assess their potential in degraded DNA analysis. The results demonstrated a greatly improved efficiency in the analysis of degraded DNA when compared to commercial STR genotyping kits. A series of human skeletal remains that had been exposed to a variety of environmental conditions were also examined. Sixty-four percent of the samples generated full profiles when amplified with the Miniplexes, while only sixteen percent of the samples tested generated full profiles with a commercial kit. In addition, complete profiles were obtained for eleven of the twelve Miniplex loci which had amplicon size ranges less than 200 base pairs. These data clearly demonstrate that smaller PCR amplicons provide an attractive alternative to mitochondrial DNA for forensic analysis of degraded DNA.

Data Modeling is successfully applied to outbreak detection using epidemicological time series data. With proper selection of features, same day detection was demonstrated. Predictive Data Models are derived from the features in the form of integro-differential equations or their solution. These models are used as real-time change detectors. Data Modeling enables change detection using only nominal (no-outbreak) examples for training. Modeling naturally occurring dynamics due to assignable causes such as flu season enables distinction to be made of chemical and biological (chem-bio) causes.

This presentation will provide an odour analysis of a variety of smokeless powders & communicate the rapid SPME-GC-ECD method utilized. This paper will also discuss the implications of the headspace analysis of Smokeless Powders upon the choice of training aids for Explosives Detection Canines. Canine detection of explosives relies upon the dogs’ ability to equate finding a given explosive odour with a reward, usually in the form of praise or play. The selection of explosives upon which the dogs are trained thus determines which explosives the canines can and potentially cannot find. Commonly, the training is focussed towards high explosives such as TNT and Composition 4, and the low explosives such as Black and Smokeless Powders are added often only for completeness. Powder explosives constitute a major component of explosive incidents throughout the US, and canines trained to detect explosives must be trained across the entire range of powder products. Given the variability in the manufacture and product make-up many smokeless powders do not share common odour chemicals, giving rise to concerns over the extensiveness of canine training. Headspace analysis of a selection of Smokeless Powders by Solid Phase Microextraction Gas Chromatography using Mass Spectrometry (SPME-GC-MS) and Electron Capture Detectors (SPME-GC-ECD) has highlighted significant differences in the chemical composition of the odour available from different brands. This suggests that greater attention should be paid towards the choice of Powder Explosives when assigning canine training aids.

Reconstruction for forensic purposes of shattered or otherwise damaged objects has been a painstaking, if not impossible, undertaking. The forensic crime scientist and the archaeologist share this challenge. A pilot project, funded by the National Institute of Justice experimented with several avenues of approach to this problem of reassembly by using the 627 fragmented pieces of a pane of glass from a crime scene. I was approached by staff members of the Forensic Laboratory of the Minnesota Bureau of Criminal Apprehension because I was developing a means to restore a Greek Bronze Age wall painting (ca. 1350 B.C.E.) fragmented into 4750 pieces and a Greek temple (ca. 150 B.C.E.) demolished by vandals about 1500 years ago, leaving behind 1485 stone blocks, 1-3 tons each. The challenge was to develop an automated method to rapidly and effectively analyze a quantity of fragments of like kind separated one from the other and from the original object by violence and other means. The project established a set of mathematically and graphically definable characteristics held by the glass sherds which allowed for the making of joins between pieces. Preparation included the formulation of inventory check-sheets and a barcode label system with a unique identifier for each piece based on a x,y,z grid system. The next step involved experimentation with an array of proprietary GIS, SQL, and CAD software alternatives for the processing of data. In the end we settled on maximum likelihood analysis of SQL filtered results. This and shape indices were complied using ArcView and the scripting language, Avenue, products of ESRI, Redlands, California.

Materials analysis and characterization can provide important information as evidence in legal proceedings. Although the utility of trace elemental analyses for comparisons of glass, paint chips, bullet lead and metal fragments has been shown to offer a high degree of discrimination between different sources of these materials, the instrumentation required for the generation of good analytical data in forensic comparisons can be beyond the reach of many forensic laboratories. Scanning Electron Microscopy with an Energy Dispersive Spectrometer (SEM-EDS), X-Ray Fluorescence (XRF), Laser Ablation Inductively Coupled Plasma Atomic Emission Spectroscopy (LA-ICP-AES) and, more recently, LA-Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS) have been used in forensic laboratories for elemental analysis determinations. A newly developed Laser Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy (LIBS) instrument (Foster and Freeman Ltd., Evesham, U.K.) has been evaluated as a tool for the forensic elemental analysis of glass and compared in performance to other elemental methods in order to determine the utility of comparing casework sized glass samples. Developments in the instrumental design of this LIBS system, which is specifically designed to address the analytical requirements of the forensic laboratory, are presented. The utility of the LIBS system for the analysis of glass, paint, metals, gun shot residue and other matrices are also presented. The power of the LIBS-based elemental analysis to discriminate between different glass samples is also compared to the discrimination power of SEM-EDS, XRF and LA-ICP-MS. The relatively low cost (expected to be ~ $ 60,000.), ease of operation and almost non-destructive nature of the LIBS analysis makes the technique a viable forensic elemental analysis tool.

The detection of illicit explosives in a large room, container, or cargo hold is problematic due to the current limitations in sampling and detection of explosives and to the size and time constraints of the search. Solid Phase MicroExtraction (SPME) can be used to rapidly extract volatile and semi-volatile compounds from the headspace of an explosive and ion mobility spectrometry (IMS) is a rapid presumptive organic detection technique that has already found widespread use in the detection of hidden explosives. SPME has recently been coupled to IMS as a sample pre-concentration device in order to improve the detection of explosives concealed in open areas. Detection limits have been determined for the following taggants: 2-nitrotoluene (2-NT), 4-nitrotoluene (4-NT), 2,3-dimethyl-2,3-dinitro butane (DMNB) and the following volatile explosive compounds: 2,4-dinitrotoluene, (2,4-DNT), 2,6-dinitrotoluene (2,6-DNT), and 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene (2,4,6-TNT). Nitrocellulose (NC) is also capable of being detected by the SPME-IMS system on a reliable basis. Results from these experiments point towards the usefulness of this technique as a potential screening tool for explosive compounds. Mass transport experiments are being conducted to determine the compound concentration in a flow of air for detection to occur. Further work will also be conducted using explosive odor signature compounds as potential illicit explosive detection compounds.

Current still image and video systems are typically of limited use in poor visibility conditions such as in rain, fog, smoke, and haze. These conditions severely limit the range and effectiveness of imaging systems because of the severe reduction in contrast. The NASA Langley Research Center’s Visual Information Processing Group has developed an image enhancement technology based on the concept of a visual servo that has direct applications to the problem of poor visibility conditions. This technology has been used in cases of severe image turbidity in air as well as underwater with dramatic results. Use of this technology could result in greatly improved performance of perimeter surveillance systems, military, security, and law enforcement operations, port security, both on land and below water, and air and sea rescue services, resulting in improved public safety.

This paper concerns automatic video surveillance of outdoor scenes using a single camera. The first step in automatic interpretation of the video stream is activity detection based on background subtraction. Usually, this process will generate a large number of false alarms in outdoor scenes due to e.g. movement of thicket and changes in illumination. To reduce the number of false alarms a Track Before Detect (TBD) approach is suggested. In this TBD implementation all objects detected in the background subtraction process are followed over a number of frames. An alarm is given only if a detected object shows a pattern of movement consistent with predefined rules. The method is tested on a number of video sequences and a substantial reduction in the number of false alarms is demonstrated.

The use of an optical fiber as a distributed sensor for detecting and locating intruders over long perimeters (>10 km) is described. Phase changes resulting from either the pressure of the intruder on the ground immediately above the buried fiber or from seismic disturbances in the vicinity are sensed by a phase-sensitive optical time-domain reflectometer (Φ-OTDR). Light pulses from a cw laser operating in a single longitudinal mode and with low (MHz/min range) frequency drift are injected into one end of the single mode fiber, and the backscattered light is monitored with a photodetector. In laboratory tests with 12 km of fiber on reels, the effects of localized phase perturbations induced by a piezoelectric fiber stretcher on Φ-OTDR traces were characterized. In field tests in which the sensing element is a single mode fiber in a 3-mm diameter cable buried in a 20-46 cm deep, 10 cm wide trench in clay soil, detection of intruders on foot up to 4.6 m from the cable line was achieved. In desert terrain field tests in which the sensing fiber is in a 4.5-mm diameter cable buried in a 30 cm deep, 75 cm wide trench filled with loose sand, high sensitivity and consistent detection of intruders on foot and of vehicles traveling down a road near the cable line was realized over a cable length of 8.5 km and a total fiber path of 19 km. Based on these results, this technology may be regarded as a candidate for providing low-cost perimeter security for nuclear power plants, electrical power distribution centers, storage facilities for fuel and volatile chemicals, communication hubs, airports, government offices, military bases, embassies, and national borders.

A novel adaptive multi-focus image fusion algorithm is given in this paper, which is based on the improved pulse coupled neural network(PCNN) model, the fundamental characteristics of the multi-focus image and the properties of visual imaging. Compared with the traditional algorithm where the linking strength, β_ij, of each neuron in the PCNN model is the same and its value is chosen through experimentation, this algorithm uses the clarity of each pixel of the image as its value, so that the linking strength of each pixel can be chosen adaptively. A fused image is produced by processing through the compare-select operator the objects of each firing mapping image taking part in image fusion, deciding in which image the clear parts is and choosing the clear parts in the image fusion process. By this algorithm, other parameters, for example, Δ, the threshold adjusting constant, only have a slight effect on the new fused image. It therefore overcomes the difficulty in adjusting parameters in the PCNN. Experiments show that the proposed algorithm works better in preserving the edge and texture information than the wavelet transform method and the Laplacian pyramid method do in multi-focus image fusion.

We describe a novel system called V-Sentinel (Virtual Sentinel) that offers a unique solution for situational awareness, assessment, and response support for security and military applications. Unlike traditional surveillance systems that display 2D videos or images on separate windows/screens, thereby providing no integration of information, no high-level scene comprehension, and no situational awareness, the V-Sentinel provides users a complete global view of entire surveillance scene including 3D geospatial models of the environment, aerial and terrestrial imagery, real-time videos, and dynamic sensor alarm/status designators - all on one screen, and from arbitrary viewpoints. This paper discusses the system design and integration of various capabilities to create a V-Sentinel system, and the results from our demonstrations and performance evaluations of the system to several government agencies and defense contractors for military and national security applications.

The use of the tomographic scanning (TOSCA) imaging technique is presented, and improvements using a rotating aperture are presented. The TOSCA imaging technique is based on tomographic imaging principles applied to the output from a conical scan reticle system, and allows for a simple, low cost system consisting of simple scanning optics, a single element detector and a signal-processing unit to act as an imaging sensor. Potential applications of the TOSCA seeker include missile seekers, smart munitions, and other devices using low-cost imagers.

In this paper we present an update on our research into the use of microgel-based photonic crystals in an optical tagging application. The chemistry of microgel photonic crystals is well established in the visible region of the electromagnetic spectrum. Georgia Tech has recently extended the current visible-band microgel photonic crystal technology into the infrared spectral domain. We have produced infrared-responsive photonic materials from highly monodisperse pNIPAm hydrogels with 400nm (hydrodynamic radius) particles. Both reflection and transmission measurements have been performed on these samples. In addition, we have begun ageing studies and have examined possible ways of increasing the reflection response.

The DARPA Dynamic Optical Tags (DOTs) program has as its goal the development of a low cost, small, robust, persistent, low probability of intercept, 2-way tagging, tracking, and locating device that also supports error free data rates in excess of 100 kbps and can be interrogated at ranges up to and beyond 1Km. The program has selected several promising candidates for this device and is in the process of evaluating individually their performance against predetermined milestones to ascertain whether the technology is feasible and the program should continue for further development. In all cases the candidate devices operate as retro-reflecting optical modulators. Upon interrogation by a laser at the correct wavelength and with the correct code, the tags will proceed to modulate the return retro-reflection. While data for the candidate devices are not yet in hand, nevertheless this paper will provide an overview of the nature of the devices under investigation and speculate on how these devices could be employed for both national security applications.

Low cost, small size, low power uncooled thermal imaging sensors have completely changed the way the world views commercial law enforcement and military applications. Key applications include security, medical, automotive, power generation monitoring, manufacturing and process control, aerospace application, defense, environmental and resource monitoring, maintenance monitoring and night vision. Commercial applications also include law enforcement and military special operations. Each application drives a unique set of requirements that include similar fundamental infrared technologies. Recently, in the uncooled infrared camera and microbolometer detector areas, major strides have been made in the design and manufacture of personal military and law enforcement sensors. L-3 Communications Infrared Products (L-3 IP) is producing a family of new products based on the amorphous silicon microbolometer with low cost, low power, high volume, wafer-level vacuum packaged silicon focal plane array technologies. These bolometer systems contain no choppers or thermoelectric coolers, require no manual calibration, and use readily available commercial off-the-shelf components. One such successful product is the Thermal-Eye X100xp. Extensive market needs analysis for these small hand held sensors has been validated by the quick acceptability into the Law Enforcement and Military Segments. As well as this product has already been received, L-3 IP has developed a strategic roadmap to improve and enhance the features and function of this product to include upgrades such as the new 30-Hz, 30-μm pitch detector. This paper describes advances in bolometric focal plane arrays, optical and circuit card technologies while providing a glimpse into the future of micro hand held sensor growth. Also, technical barriers are addressed in light of constraints, lessons learned and boundary conditions. One conclusion is that the Thermal Eye Silicon Bolometer technology simultaneously drives weight, cost, size, power, performance, producibility and design flexibility, each individually and all together - a must for the portable commercial law enforcement and military markets.

Thermal imaging is rightfully a real-world technology proven to bring confidence to daytime, nighttime and all weather security surveillance. Automatic image processing intrusion detection algorithms are also a real world technology proven to bring confidence to system surveillance security solutions. Together, day, night and all weather video imagery sensors and automated intrusion detection software systems create the real power to protect early against crime, providing real-time global homeland protection, rather than simply being able to monitor and record activities for post event analysis. These solutions, whether providing automatic security system surveillance at airports (to automatically detect unauthorized aircraft takeoff and landing activities) or at high risk private, public or government facilities (to automatically detect unauthorized people or vehicle intrusion activities) are on the move to provide end users the power to protect people, capital equipment and intellectual property against acts of vandalism and terrorism. As with any technology, infrared sensors and automatic image intrusion detection systems for global homeland security protection have clear technological strengths and limitations compared to other more common day and night vision technologies or more traditional manual man-in-the-loop intrusion detection security systems. This paper addresses these strength and limitation capabilities. False Alarm (FAR) and False Positive Rate (FPR) is an example of some of the key customer system acceptability metrics and Noise Equivalent Temperature Difference (NETD) and Minimum Resolvable Temperature are examples of some of the sensor level performance acceptability metrics.

Recent advances in the state of the art of IR imaging have made it possible to provide ultra-long range detection, recognition, and identification performance with small, low cost, yet rugged camera systems. As the trend in IR technology has moved toward larger format uncooled microbolometers, BAE Systems has developed a PMC300^TM camera system based on a 640x480 uncooled microbolometer detector. The system is capable of detecting humans at distances in excess of 4km, has a sensitivity of better than 50mK, is compact, has low power consumption, quick start times and can operate in desert and polar climates. This paper will discuss the PMC^TM performance capabilities, design considerations, design improvements, and its varied applications.

Perimeter security is of increasing importance, both for Homeland security and a variety of related applications. Infrared (IR) imaging systems in a variety of configurations can provide a compact, cost effective solution for day/night long-range visual site perimeter surveillance. Over the past year, L-3 Communications Cincinnati Electronics (L-3 CE) has fielded currently available electro-optic/IR imaging systems with several configurations of optics and focal plane array (FPA) detector format to collect digital data on man and vehicle targets. The purpose of these deployments was to assess compatibility with existing sites and determine identification ranges. Of key interest to L-3 CE were the comparison of predicted night vision performance to field data at ranges up to ten kilometers, comparison of daytime and nighttime operation, and the population of an image database for future in-camera image enhancement algorithms. This paper provides information on the configuration of the imager, pan/tilt head, and data control/collection system, environmental conditions, and range performances achieved for the various test sites. It includes a summary of the data collected with sample imagery from the collection activities. This paper concludes with the results of data analysis, plans for future data collections, and implementation into ground based sites.

Historically, the US Army has recognized the advantages of panoramic imagers with high image resolution: increased area coverage with fewer cameras, instantaneous full horizon detection, location and tracking of multiple targets simultaneously, extended range, and others. The novel ViperViewTM high-resolution panoramic thermal imager is the heart of the Automatic Panoramic Thermal Integrated Sensor (APTIS), being jointly developed by Applied Science Innovative, Inc. (ASI) and the Armament Research, Development and Engineering Center (ARDEC) in support of the Future Combat Systems (FCS) and the Intelligent Munitions Systems (IMS). The APTIS is anticipated to operate as an intelligent node in a wireless network of multifunctional nodes that work together to improve situational awareness (SA) in many defense and offensive operations, as well as serve as a sensor node in tactical Intelligence Surveillance Reconnaissance (ISR). The ViperView is as an aberration-corrected omnidirectional imager with small optics designed to match the resolution of a 640x480 pixels IR camera with improved image quality for longer range target detection, classification, and tracking. The same approach is applicable to panoramic cameras working in the visible spectral range. Other components of the ATPIS sensor suite include ancillary sensors, advanced power management, and wakeup capability. This paper describes the development status of the APTIS system.

A remote, aerial, laser-based sonar and communications concept has been demonstrated to direct laser beams from the air onto the water surface to remotely generate and detect underwater sound. This forms the basis for a portable, aerial sonar and communications system for both detecting underwater objects such as vehicles and mines as well as for bi-directional acoustic communication between an in-air platform and a submerged platform operating at speed and depth. Two laser systems are required. The first laser system is a high-energy laser, the opto-acoustic transmitter, whose optical energy is converted to acoustic energy at the water surface. The second laser system is a laser interferometer, the acousto-optic sensor that detects underwater sound by measuring the vibrations of the water surface caused by the incident underwater sound field. Historically, acoustic transmitters and detectors need to be submerged to interact with the underwater environment. This remote, aerial, laser-based sonar and communication system presents a revolutionary change in the way sonar and communications can be realized, by remotely activating and detecting underwater acoustics from the air.

In recent years, NASA's interest in autonomous rendezvous and docking operations with impaired or non-cooperative spacecraft has grown extensively. In order to maneuver and dock, a servicing spacecraft must be able to determine the relative 6 degree-of-freedom (6 DOF) motion between the vehicle and the target spacecraft. One method to determine the relative 6 DOF position and attitude is through lidar imaging. A flash lidar sensor system can capture close-proximity range images of the target spacecraft, producing 3-D point cloud data sets. These sequentially collected point-cloud data sets can be compared to a point cloud image of the target at a known location using a point correspondence-less variant of the Iterative Closest Points (ICP) algorithm to determine the relative 6 DOF displacements. Simulation experiments indicate that the MSE, angular error, mean, and standard deviations for position and orientation estimates did not vary as a function of position and attitude. Furthermore, the computational times required by this algorithm were comparable to previously reported variants of the point-to-point and point-to-plane based ICP variants.

In this paper we propose a new encryption technique for wireless sensor networks (3DSSec). Although RC4 is more susceptible to cryptanalysis attacks than RC5, the proposed encryption scheme has implemented RC4 in a way that boosts security when used in sensor networks and still allows a respectable performance/security trade off. The proposed encryption scheme is a good choice for Mica2 network sensors because it is based on an encryption algorithm that performs very well on Atmega128 platforms and has very modest memory demands. The encryption system seems a very good balance between performance and security given the limits of network sensors.

Networked radio systems that utilize self-forming, fault tolerant techniques offer needed communication functions for Homeland Security and Law Enforcement agencies. The use of an ad hoc mesh network architecture solves some of the problems inherent to the wireless physical layer such as interferers, multi-path fading, shadowing, and loss of line-of-site. These effects severely limit the performance of current 802.11 wireless network implementations. This paper describes the use of Adaptive Link-layer Intelligence for Enhanced ad hoc Networking. This technology enhances recognition and characterization of sources of wireless channel perturbations and predicts their effects on wireless link quality. Identifying and predicting channel problems at the link level improves dynamic route discovery, circumvents channel disruptions before they cause a link failure, and increases communications reliability and data rate. First Responders, Homeland Security, and Law Enforcement agencies operating in locations lacking infrastructure, such as Urban Search and Rescue (USAR) operations, can benefit from increased communications reliability in highly impaired channels that are typical in disaster response scenarios.

Providing security is essential for mission critical Wireless Ad Hoc and Sensor Networks (WAHSN) applications. Often a highly secure mechanism inevitably consumes a rather large amount of system resources, which in turn may unintentionally cause a Security Service Denial of Service (SSDoS) attack. This paper proposes a self-adaptive resource-aware (SARA) security provisioning approach for WAHSNs. For resource scarce WAHSNs, SARA strives to provide the optimal tradeoff between the sufficient security (which is reflected by the Security Index (SI)) and the acceptable network performance degradation (which is reflected by the Performance Index (PI)). With the support of the offline optimal secure protocol selection module and the online self-adaptive security control module, SARA is capable of employing different combinations of secure protocol sets to satisfy different security need at different condition for different applications. To determine the security index SI of a secure protocol set, a heuristic cross-layer security-service mapping mechanism is presented. Furthermore, we evaluate performance index PI of a secure protocol set via simulation followed by Analysis of Variance (ANOVA). Consequently, the proposed self-adaptive security provisioning based on both SI and PI achieves the maximum overall network security services and network performance services, without causing the SSDoS attack. Furthermore, this self-adaptive mechanism is capable of switching from one secure protocol set to another while keeping similar level of security and performance, it thus provides additional security by security service hopping.

Report progress of Payload Weaponry standards within the Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) Unmanned Systems Committee (AS-4) Weapons Payload Subcommittee.

In this paper, we discuss the implementation of Linear Constrained Minimum Variance (LCMV) beamforming (BF) for a novel Wireless Local Position System (WLPS). WLPS main components are: (a) a dynamic base station (DBS), and (b) a transponder (TRX), both mounted on mobiles. WLPS might be considered as a node in a Mobile Adhoc NETwork (MANET). Each TRX is assigned an identification (ID) code. DBS transmits periodic short bursts of energy which contains an ID request (IDR) signal. The TRX transmits back its ID code (a signal with a limited duration) to the DBS as soon as it detects the IDR signal. Hence, the DBS receives non-continuous signals transmitted by TRX. In this work, we assume asynchronous Direct-Sequence Code Division Multiple Access (DS-CDMA) transmission from the TRX with antenna array/LCMV BF mounted at the DBS, and we discuss the implementation of the observed signal covariance matrix for LCMV BF. In LCMV BF, the observed covariance matrix should be estimated. Usually sample covariance matrix (SCM) is used to estimate this covariance matrix assuming a stationary model for the observed data which is the case in many communication systems. However, due to the non-stationary behavior of the received signal in WLPS systems, SCM does not lead to a high WLPS performance compared to even a conventional beamformer. A modified covariance matrix estimation method which utilizes the cyclostationarity property of WLPS system is introduced as a solution to this problem. It is shown that this method leads to a significant improvement in the WLPS performance.

Wireless Ad Hoc and Sensor Networks (WAHSNs) are vulnerable to extensive attacks as well as severe resource constraints. To fulfill the security needs, many security enhancements have been proposed. Like wise, from resource constraint perspective, many power aware schemes have been proposed to save the battery power. However, we observe that for the severely resource limited and extremely vulnerable WAHSNs, taking security or power (or any other resource) alone into consideration for protocol design is rather inadequate toward the truly “secure-and-useful” WAHSNs. For example, from resource constraint perspective, we identify one of the potential problems, the Security-Capable-Congestion (SCC) behavior, for the WAHSNs routing protocols where only the security are concerned. On the other hand, the design approach where only scarce resource is concerned, such as many power-aware WAHSNs protocols, leaves security unconsidered and is undesirable to many WAHSNs application scenarios. Motivated by these observations, we propose a co-design approach, where both the high security and effective resource consumption are targeted for WAHSNs protocol design. Specifically, we propose a novel routing protocol, Security- and Power- Aware Routing (SPAR) protocol based on this co-design approach. In SPAR, the routing decisions are made based on both security and power as routing criteria. The idea of the SPAR mechanism is routing protocol independent and therefore can be broadly integrated into any of the existing WAHSNs routing protocols. The simulation results show that SPAR outperforms the WAHSNs routing protocols where security or power alone is considered, significantly. This research finding demonstrates the proposed security- and resource- aware co-design approach is promising towards the truly “secure-and-useful” WAHSNs.

Multicasting is the enabling technology for group communication. However, network-layer multicasting (e.g., IP multicast) has not been widely adopted more than 10 years of its invention due to the concerns related to deployment, scalability and network management. Application-layer multicast (ALM) has been proposed as an alternative for IP multicast. In ALM, group communications take place on an overlay network in which each edge corresponds to a direct unicast path between two group members. ALM protocols differ in, among other aspects, the topology of the underlying overlay network (e.g., tree, mesh or ring). Ring-based ALM protocols have the advantages of providing a constant node degree, and enabling the implementation of reliable and totally-ordered message delivery through the use of a ring with a token that contains ordering and flow control information. In addition, a ring overlay network topology is inherently reliable to single node failures. In this paper, we provide a survey and a taxonomy of several ring-building group communication protocols. Investigating the major characteristics of ring-building network protocols is an important step towards understanding which of them are suitable for command and control group communications.

Our goal is to bring a data rich environment to the intelligence analyst's desktop set within a detailed 3D view of the real-world context. This paper outlines our efforts leading up to this goal, our current work and our path forward.

This paper presents a novel broadband modulation method for digital underwater communications: Chirp Slope Keying (CSK). In its simplest form, the binary information modulates the slope of a linear chirp, with up-chirps representing ones and down-chirps representing zeros. Performance evaluation in the form of probability of error vs. SNR show that the system performs as expected for AWGN environments and very well for more realistic models for underwater acoustical communications, such as the Raylegih channel with Doppler, delays, phase offset, and multipath.

The Naval Research Laboratory’s Geospatial Information Database (GIDB^TM) Portal System has been extended to now include an extensive geospatial search functionality. The GIDB Portal System interconnects over 600 distributed geospatial data sources via the Internet with a thick client, thin client and a PDA client. As the GIDB Portal System has rapidly grown over the last two years (adding hundreds of geospatial sources), the obvious requirement has arisen to more effectively mine the interconnected sources in near real-time. How the GIDB Search addresses this issue is the prime focus of this paper.

The era of wireless communication and discrete, autonomous sensors platforms is upon us. Advances in radio-frequency (RF) technology from simple two-way personal communications to smart, independent, sensor command, and control units has greatly expanded the applications domain. In the past four years, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory (PNNL) scientists and engineers have developed smart sensor tags (health tags) for the Army to monitor environmental conditions of high value assets over their lifetime (10 yrs). These field tested health tags uniquely identify individual assets, record and store data, run diagnostic and prognostic protocols, identify asset performance status (GO, CAUTION, NO-GO), and provide all this information over a wireless RF link to a portable, hand held reader. Leveraging the innovation achieved for health monitoring tags, the next generation active sensor tag has been developed (FlexiTag) providing reduced tag size and manufacturing cost, greater sensor interface capabilities, and a flexible substrate for surface mount conformity. The design has a greatly reduced part count due to the use of newly available, highly integrated RF chip sets. In addition to asset health monitoring, the new tag platform opens up additional application areas such as TTL (tagging, tracking, and locating), real-time machine fault monitoring, and ad-hoc sensor networking. This paper will compare and contrast the FlexiTag to its predecessors and discuss the current application areas it is being applied to.

Over the past years, three-dimensional (3-D) terrain mapping technology has improved to the degree that it is now extremely useful for site surveillance applications. Resolution and accuracy in absolute (world) coordinates of 1 m or better are now available. City-size areas can be collected and high-quality maps produced in a few days at reasonable cost. Maps are already available for many sites of interest and availability will increase as costs continue to drop and more applications are developed for them. The 3-D maps are useful in all phases of site security. I show how the maps are useful for planning, where they allow easy delineation of the areas to be monitored and optimum sensor placements. I show how the maps can be used for target detection algorithms, where the portions of each sensor's field of view that fall outside the area to be monitored can be masked out to reduce false alarms. Also, since the range to the map is known for each pixel within the sensor field of view, the scale of any potential target is also known and algorithms do not have to accommodate a wide range of potential target sizes. Finally, I show how electro-optical/infrared imagery can be projected onto the 3-D map to provide context. Previous detections, target tracks, and other information can also be added to the display to enhance its value. I have worked with a map of the Adelphi site of the U.S. Army Research Laboratory, projecting electro-optical and infrared imagery onto it with very encouraging results. I have also calculated sightlines for a radar considered for the roof of our main building. The tools are practical with current hardware at reasonable prices.

In this paper we describe metrics related to the quantification of situational awareness of surveillance systems based on sensor networks. Our work emphasizes the necessity for the sensor system to be able to track processes that evolve in general stochastically and may even be driven by intelligence. The result is a hierarchical model for surveillance systems in which different levels of description of the system's state and its kinematics correspond to different levels of situational awareness and require the activation of different sensor modalities.

The information generated by the integrated sensor suite is massive. Simply bringing the information to the decision makers is a cognitive disaster due to the information overload. Intelligent algorithms need to be developed to exploit and filter the information. In this work, we seek to develop content-level change detection and activity-level information fusion and filtering algorithms to detect unusual activities for persistent target surveillance applications.

Data link antennas for use in air-to-air and air-to-ground communications of data at extremely high data rates have traditionally been X-Band and Ku-band dish antennas. These antennas are low-cost and provide efficient operation for the required application. Nine to 12 inch antennas are sufficiently large enough to support the required link margin at the data rates and with the associated RF power amplifiers. To increase the data transfer capacity would require more RF transmit power and/or larger antennas. RF power amplifiers are not very efficient and any increase in transmit power would result in a significant increase in power consumptions and would significantly increase the cost. In addition, any increase in antenna size would require larger radomes and this would impact aircraft performance and also increase the cost. An alternative would be to integrate an optical capability into to the RF system to augment the existing RF data link system and use a shared aperture (combined RF and optical) for the transmit/receive antenna for the optical and RF communication systems. With careful design the traditional dish antenna could be designed to accommodate the optical capability with little change in the form of the dish antenna. This would allow a retrofit to include the combined capability of RF and optical with minimal impact on the existing form of the dish antenna. This would also require a new radome design to include the transmit/receive of the optical signals in addition to the RF signals. This paper discusses several design options for the antenna, including coating designs to support simultaneous operation of RF and optical signals, feed systems for simultaneous operation, techniques for low-loss combining/splitting the RF and optical signals, and antenna configurations for simultaneous operation for RF and optical communications operation.

Magnetic sensors configured as a tensor magnetic gradiometer not only detect magnetic targets, but also determine their location and their magnetic moment. Magnetic moment information can be used to characterize and classify objects. Unexploded ordnance (UXO) and thus many types of improvised explosive device (IED) contain steel, and thus can be detected magnetically. Suitable unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) platforms, both gliders and powered craft, can enable coverage of a search area much more rapidly than surveys using, for instance, total-field magnetometers. We present data from gradiometer passes over different shells using a gradiometer mounted on a moving cart. We also provide detection range and speed estimates for aerial detection by a UAV.

In this paper, we propose a novel chaos based ultra-wideband (UWB) sensor to enhance homeland security applications. The proposed chaos based modulation has a good resolution when used for wall penetrating applications. The receiver exploits the deterministic nature of chaos to cancel room reverberations avoiding complex synchronization procedure. Numerical electromagnetic (EM) simulations using finite difference time domain (FDTD) method are performed to illustrate the imaging performance of the proposed radar under real life surveillance situations with hidden and moving targets. The simulations are also employed to analyze the extent of penetrating ability of the proposed scheme for different structures. The effect of various structures and thickness on the detection performance are also commented upon.

Millimeter-wave (mmw) imagers offer advantages for numerous applications, including: all weather reconnaissance, search and rescue, law enforcement, and security screening for homeland defense. The use of bolometer-based imagers for mmw provides potential advantages of low power, small size, weight, and cost. In addition, bolometer-based imagers provide the unique capability of detection over an enormous spectral range, i.e., from mmw through the sub-mmw (from 100 GHz through greater than 1 THz). We report on high-resolution materials transmission measurements as well as advances in mmw imager architectures that seek to exploit improved imager sensitivity and resolution enabled by operation at sub-mmw and THz frequencies

A brief review of backscatter x-ray imaging and a description of three systems currently applying it to homeland defense missions (BodySearch, ZBV and ZBP). These missions include detection of concealed weapons, explosives and contraband on personnel, in vehicles and large cargo containers. An overview of the x-ray imaging subsystems is provided as well as sample images from each system. Key features such as x-ray safety, throughput and detection are discussed. Recent trends in operational modes are described that facilitate 100% inspection at high throughput chokepoints.

Cross-border tunnels have been used by drug, people smugglers and terrorist organizations for clandestine entry or exit and transportation of contraband materials under the borders. The ability to detect these tunnels is paramount to successful border control. The Synchronized Electromagnetic Gradiometer uses the enhanced conductivity associated with tunnels, as compared to the surrounding medium, to detect the tunnels. A low-frequency electromagnetic (EM) signal is used to illuminate the area of interest. This signal, in turn, induces current flow in any conductors within the tunnel that generate secondary EM fields observable at a distance from the tunnel. The magnitude of the secondary wave can be orders of magnitude less than the illuminating signal. An efficient detection system has been achieved by using a gradiometer design that suppresses the illuminating signal by more than 70 dB while maximizing the secondary signal with a narrow bandwidth (BW = 1 Hz) synchronized receiver. This paper describes the performance of the Synchronized Electromagnetic Wave Gradiometer during several field studies and demonstrations including the Otay Mesa cross-border tunnel near San Diego, California.

This paper reports on an investigation into optimal excitation and emission wavelengths for bioaerosol detection. Excitation/Emission Matrix (EEM) fluorescence data were gathered for a variety of materials, including biowarfare (BW) simulants, cell constituents, growth media and known interferents. These data were used to investigate multi-wavelength discrimination algorithms using pattern classification techniques. The results suggest that using two excitation wavelengths and narrower emission bands can improve discrimination between BW agents and interferents.

ChemSentry is a portable system used to detect, identify, and quantify chemical warfare (CW) agents. Electro chemical (EC) cell sensor technology is used for blood agents and an array of surface acoustic wave (SAW) sensors is used for nerve and blister agents. The combination of the EC cell and the SAW array provides sufficient sensor information to detect, classify and quantify all CW agents of concern using smaller, lighter, lower cost units. Initial development of the SAW array and processing was a key challenge for ChemSentry requiring several years of fundamental testing of polymers and coating methods to finalize the sensor array design in 2001. Following the finalization of the SAW array, nearly three (3) years of intensive testing in both laboratory and field environments were required in order to gather sufficient data to fully understand the response characteristics. Virtually unbounded permutations of agent characteristics and environmental characteristics must be considered in order to operate against all agents and all environments of interest to the U.S. military and other potential users of ChemSentry. The resulting signal processing design matched to this extensive body of measured data (over 8,000 agent challenges and 10,000 hours of ambient data) is considered to be a significant advance in state-of-the-art for CW agent detection.