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This PDF file contains the front matter associated with SPIE Proceedings Volume 7591, including the Title Page, Copyright information, Table of Contents, and the Conference Committee listing.
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Traditional photolithography begins with single-photon absorption of patterned light by a photo-initiator to locally
expose a resist. In two-color photo-initiation/inhibition (2PII) lithography, these exposed regions are confined by a
surrounding pattern of inhibitors generated by one-photon absorption of a second color in a photo-inhibitor. Like a
stencil used to confine spray-paint to a thin, sharp line, the inhibitory pattern acts as a remotely programmable,
transient near-field mask to control the size and shape of the modified resist region. The inhibiting species rapidly
recombine in the dark, allowing for fast sequential exposures and thus enabling fabrication of complex two- or threedimensional
structures.
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We present our investigations into the design and fabrication of a complex shape, readily assembled micro check-valve
using the two-photon polymerization technique and a hybrid material. A computational fluid dynamics study has been
carried out in order to evaluate the flow performance of the valve under blood pressures exhibited in healthy human
veins. The fabricated micro-valves exhibit good dimensional accuracy when compared to the CAD-created valve design
and the capability of an internal moving component to perform its intended function.
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Nanoimprint lithography (NIL) is an attractive method for its ability to quickly and cheaply pattern nano-scaled
dimensions, and is an enabling technology for patterning large area substrates. The benefits of NIL are demonstrated
through its application towards large area nanowire image arrays. In this work, we have fabricated and characterized top
down silicon nanowire detector arrays by using UV curing NIL and deep Reactive Ion Etching techniques. Fabricated
devices show over 106 gain value at low incident light power, which is comparable to high sensitivity of an e-beam
written lithography device. This technology is suitable for fabrication of high density, addressable imager arrays.
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Using finite difference time domain simulations and e-beam assisted lithography we designed and fabricated high
transmission transparent contacts for UV nitride devices which consist in perpendicular sets of parallel aluminum lines
with a period as low as 260 nm. Transmittance values as high as 100% were predicted for aluminum meshes with the
optimized periods, metal line widths and thicknesses. Simulations were compared with optical transmittance
measurements. The critical parameters -such as grain size, edge roughness and mesh coating- were determined. The
large aluminum grain was decreased by performing a cold aluminum deposition. The aluminum oxide layer over the
aluminum mesh was found to reduce the mesh transmittance. Several alternatives were studied to overcome this issue
such as coating the mesh with a thin gold or silicon dioxide layer. While the second option appeared promising the
addition of the gold layer required much more improvement.
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We present a direct-to-device method for stamping porous silicon to produce optical microstructures. The stamping
technique utilizes a reusable silicon stamp fabricated by standard lithographic methods. Large area (9mm2) stamps are
applied to single layer thin films of porous silicon with a force on the order of 1kN. The process affords precise control
over both lateral and vertical dimensions of patterning while maintaining large area uniformity. We demonstrate tunable
imprint depths in the 10nm-120nm range as well as lateral feature sizes down to 0.25μm. Imprinted structures are
characterized by scanning electron microscopy (SEM), atomic force microscopy (AFM), and optical diffraction
experiments. By utilizing reusable stamps and a straightforward technique, the overall process can be performed at low-cost
and high throughput. This enables a wide variety of optical microstructures to be readily fabricated. As an
example, we present a porous diffraction grating and demonstrate proof-of-concept sensing capabilities, for exposure to
water vapor as well as small molecules (3-aminopropyltriethoxysilane). Additional device structures enabled by this
fabrication process are also discussed. The stamping process is expected to be applicable to other porous materials such
as porous titania, porous alumina, and porous silica.
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Antiresonant reflecting optical waveguides (ARROWs) provide a promising approach to realizing high-sensitivity
sensing platforms on planar substrates. We have previously developed ARROW platforms that guide light in
hollow cores filled with liquid and gas media. These platforms include integrated traditional solid waveguides
to direct light into and out of sensing media. To improve the sensitivity of these platforms for optical sensing,
hollow waveguide loss must be reduced. We are working towards this by using anisotropic plasma etching to
create near-ideal hollow ARROW geometries. These structures rely on an etching mask that also serves as the
sacrificial core for the waveguide. This self-aligned process creates a hollow waveguide on a pedestal which is
surrounded by a terminal layer of air in three directions. We previously produced ARROWs by pre-etching the
silicon substrate and aligning the sacrificial core to the pedestal. However, this necessitates using a pedestal
which is wider than the core, leading to higher loss and poor reproducibility. We have also increased the hollow
to solid waveguide transmission efficiency by using a design that coats the sides and top of the hollow core with
a single layer of silicon dioxide. Using this design, we have demonstrated an interface transmission improvement
of more than two times. A much improved optical sensor platform will incorporate both of these features, using
the self-aligned pedestal process for most of the length of the hollow waveguides to decrease loss, and employing
the single layer design only at the interfaces to improve hollow-solid waveguide coupling.
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A great deal of attention in recent years has been given to inkjet printing as an alternative to traditional
lithographic techniques due to its potential for low cost and rapid turnaround fabrication. A Dimatix DMP-2831
materials printer is used to inkjet print polymer waveguides of SU-8 negative photoresist. Several obstacles must
be overcome for the technology to be feasible on a large scale including the development of capable print devices,
suitable materials for printing, and the ability to consistently and precisely print high-aspect-ratio geometries.
We will discuss the inkjet printing fabrication process, explore some of the difficulties encountered through the
method, present several of our first prototype waveguides, and report some preliminary results on waveguide
characterization.
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We report the design, fabrication and operation of a scanning plasmonic probe compatible with a fully customized
Near-field Scanning Microscope system. The probe is a silicon cantilever with a hollow pyramidal probe tip. A silicon
dioxide layer was thermally grown to form the probe. A 100 nm thick aluminum layer was then e-beam evaporated onto
the released probe tip to form the metal-dielectric interface for surface plasmonic wave propagation. A 500 nm diameter
aperture was subsequently milled with the Focus Ion Beam. The probe was controlled with a built-in scanning controller
for the probe-sample distance using a force sensing tuning fork. A tapered optical fiber, connected to 405 nm wavelength
laser source, was aligned to the backside of the probe tip to serve as the light source. The transmitted light through the
aperture was used to expose the photoresist (AZ 5209E), on a piece of cover glass attached on the tuning fork. The probe
was controlled for near-field photolithography, where a series of 15 exposures, varied from 0 to 8 minutes, were carried
out on the photoresist stepwise at 6.5 μm separation with subsequent 60 seconds development time. The transmitted light
beam spot was simulated with a Full Width Half Maximum of 227 nm. Atomic Force Microscope measurement showed
a 200 nm lateral resolution for the photolithography. The depths and widths of the developed patterns were linearly
correlated with increasing exposure time, showing slopes of 0.76 nm/second and 1.4 nm/second respectively.
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We report the development of new fabrication techniques for creating high aspect ratio optical lightpipes in SiO2 layers
of 10μm thickness and above. A dielectric photo mask was used for deep reactive ion etching. Our experiments show
that CF4-based reaction gases were best for deep etching with high selectivity and etch rate. Trenches with diameters or
width of 1.5μm were demonstrated, with an aspect ratio of 7.2:1 and a sidewall angle of 87.4 degrees. We also present
the lift-off process of the etch masks and the via-filling procedures for the lightpipes. These structures are useful for
image sensors, vertical interconnect and waveguiding applications.
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A new type of cationically polymerizable organic-inorganic hybrid nanocomposite with micro-patternability and tailor
able thermomechanical properties has been developed[1]. The material has been built by co-condensation of 3-glycidyloxypropyl-triethoxysilane and phenyltriethoxysilane followed by subsequent mixing with oligomeric
cycloaliphatic epoxy resin as organic co-monomer. Nanocomposite mixtures have been formed by dispersing silica
nanoparticles with 15 nm particle size into the performed matrix sol. To achieve an almost homogeneous distribution of
the nanoparticles over the matrix different surface modifiers have been applied on the silica surface. The resulting
transparent mixtures have been applied on silicon substrates and have been UV-polymerized using a cationic
photoinitiator. The mechanical and thermomechanical properties as well as the resolution of photo patterns have been
followed in dependence of the nanoparticulate filler content and the type of surface modification. Photo patterns could be
created with high edge steepness even for highly filled systems. The universal hardness increased from 145 MPa for the
unfilled hybrid resin to 244 MPa for the system containing 30 wt.-% silica. The same nanocomposite system showed an
elastic modulus of about 5090 MPa compared to the unfilled hybrid resin of 3380 MPa which indicates the high potential
of these materials forming mechanically stable patterns.
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We report maskless microfabrication of periodic structures in thin metallic films by femtosecond laser ablation.
Two-dimensional (2D) triangular arrays of circular apertures with diameter of about 0.6-0.8 μm and a lattice
period of 1.0 and 2.0 μm were fabricated by single- and multiple laser pulse ablation of 35 nm thick gold
films sputtered on glass substrates. Optical transmission spectra of the fabricated samples exhibit transmission
bands at infrared wavelengths. Theoretical modeling of the optical properties by Finite-Difference Time-Domain
(FDTD) technique indicates that these bands are associated with localized and propagating surface plasmon
(SP) modes. FDTD simulations also indicate substantial resonant enhancement of the near-field intensity at the
metal's surface. Laser ablation of thin metallic films is therefore a promising route for fast prototyping of planar
metallic micro- and nano-structures applicable as frequency-selective surfaces (FSS) and SP substrates.
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We present the fabrication of microstructures for photonic and micro-/opto-fluidic applications using femtosecond
laser 3D direct writing technique in zirconium-based sol-gel hybrid resist. The advantages and mechanism of
photo-polymerization of this new material under fs-pulsed laser exposure are discussed. We suggest and achieve a
novel method to fabricate free-standing and movable photonic microstructures, which exhibit much less distortion
than the conventional structures attached to substrates, especially when made at close to the photopolymerization
threshold. Fabrication of free-movable structures allows us to quantitatively study the shrinkage of photoresist
and to improve the resolution. It also contributes to tuning the stop band position of photonic crystals to
shorter wavelength. Furthermore, the demonstrated freely-movable property makes it possible to laser trap and
manipulate photonic microstructures and have potential application in optofluidics and bio-applications.
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In this paper, a novel direct writing technique using micro- and nanofiber pens is presented. The micro- and nanofiber
pen serves as a tightly confined point source and it adopts micro touch mode in the process of writing. The energy
distribution of direct writing model is analyzed by Three-Dimension Finite-Difference Time-Domain method. The lines
with feature sizes down to 100 nm are experimentally achieved by this technique. Experiments also demonstrate that
direct writing using micro- and nanofiber pens has some advantages: simple process, large writing area, and controllable
width of lines. In addition, by altering writing direction of lines, complex submicron patterns can be fabricated.
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Integrated photonics has the potential of fabricating a diverse set of photonic systems on a single substrate. At
nanoscales (< 100 nm), the properties of material depend on quantum confinements. The challenge is to integrate these
unique properties of nanostructures into low-cost manufacturing. For material deposition, a photo-assisted monolayer
deposition technique can provide nanomaterials with an ultra-low defect density. Epitaxial dielectrics offer the
possibility of growing defect-free optical materials including compound semiconductors on silicon substrates. In this
paper, we have also provided manufacturing directions that must be incorporated for developing the next generation of
integrated photonics.
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We have studied the design, fabrication and characterization of free-standing rolled-up InGaAs/GaAs quantum
dot microtube ring resonators, formed by the controlled release of coherently strained InGaAs/GaAs quantum dot
heterostructures from the host substrate. The dependence of the 3-dimenionally confined optical modes on the tube wall
thickness and surface geometry is investigated both theoretically and experimentally. We have further demonstrated
optically pumped rolled-up microtube lasers at room temperature, which exhibit emission wavelengths in the range of
1.1 - 1.3 μm and a low threshold of ~ 4 μW. The design and fabrication of electrically injected rolled-up InGaAs/GaAs
quantum dot microtube devices is also described.
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In this paper, we describe our efforts to control the thermal emission from a surface utilizing structured surfaces with
metal/dielectric interfaces. The goal was not to eliminate the emission, but to control the output direction and spectrum.
We focus on methods that lead to high emissivity at grazing angles, with low emission near normal. We describe the
fabrication and measurement of large passive devices (15×15 mm) and arrays of smaller chips for thermal emission
control in the longwave infrared (8 to 12 micron) spectral region. All the devices consist of a metal base layer covered
with dielectric/metal posts or lines, 0.5 microns tall. The posts (0.9×0.9 micron) and lines (0.3 micron wide) are subwavelength.
One-dimensional and two-dimensional devices with a 3 micron pitch will be shown. The devices are
measured with both a hemispherical directional reflectometer and a variable angle directional emissometer. Both
simulated and experimental results show the thermal emission effectively limited to a small spectral region and grazing
angles from the surface (≥ 80°) in stark contrast to the typical Lambertian radiation seen from unstructured material.
Finally, the effect of this thermal emission control is illustrated using an infrared camera.
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We have investigated the etching characteristics of high-index-contrast TiO2/SiO2 DBR mirrors by inductively coupled
plasma reactive ion etching (ICP-RIE) with a focus on the etch rate and the etch selectivity by varying etch parameters
(gas flow rate, RF and ICP power, pressure and temperature). Chrome, aluminum and ITO (indium tin oxide) were
applied as etch masks. Various mixtures of SF6/Ar gas were used for the etch processes. An optimum etch profile was
obtained with an etch rate of approximately 80 nm/min at a pressure of 6 mTorr and a temperature of 20 °C. The
experimental results were applied to develop Fabry-Perot filters for tunable optical sensor arrays.
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ALD is currently one of the most rapidly developing fields of thin film technology. Presentation gives an overview of
ALD technology for optical film deposition, highlighting benefits, drawbacks and peculiarities of the ALD, especially
compared to PVD. Viewpoint is practical, based on experience gained from tens of different applications over the last
few decades. ALD is not competing, but enabling technology to provide coatings, which are difficult for traditional
technologies. Examples of such cases are films inside of tubes; double side deposition on the substrate; large area
accurate coatings; decorative coating for 3D parts; conformal coatings on high aspect ratio surfaces or inside porous
structures. Novel materials can be easily engineered by making modifications on molecular level. ALD coats large
surfaces effectively and fast. Opposite to common view, it actually provides high throughput (coated area/time), when
used properly with a batch and/or in-line tools. It is possible to use ALD for many micrometers thick films or even
produce thin parts with competitive cost. Besides optical films ALD provides large variety of features for
nanofabrication. For example pin hole free films for passivation and barrier applications and best available films for
conformal coatings like planarization or to improve surface smoothness. High deposition repeatability even with
subnanometer film structures helps fabrication. ALD enters to production mostly through new products, not yet existing
on the market and so the application IP field is reasonably open. ALD is an enabling, mature technology to fabricate
novel optical materials and to open pathways for new applications.
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We modified the conformal-evaporated-film-by-rotation (CEFR) technique to improve the uniformity of nominally
⪅ 1000-nm-thick films deposited on nonplanar biological templates to replicate surface features. The
biotemplates selected are eyes harvested from Phormia regina, a common species of blow fly which has large
compound eyes. Bulk chalcogenide glass with nominal composition Ge28Sb12Se60 was used as the source material
for all coatings. The modified CEFR technique introduced a second degree of freedom in manipulating
the biotemplate with respect to the average direction of the vapor flux. We were thus able to tailor the motion
of the platform holding the biotemplate to improve the uniformity of the coatings. Cross-sectional images of
the coated biotemplates obtained using microtomy and scanning electron microscopy confirmed the expected
improvement.
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This paper describes the design and analysis of a deep-UV diffractive beam shaper for converting a collimated Gaussian
beam into a collimated flattop beam. Diffractive beam shapers can be manufactured in most common materials to
provide good beam control with very low non-uniformity. Beam shapers, however, are generally very sensitive to beam
parameters and alignment. Here we examine the sensitivity of the beam shaper to alignment and tilt of the input beam,
phase surfaces, and various other fabrication errors. This device was successfully built and comparisons with laboratory
measurements show excellent agreement with simulation predictions.
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Miniaturization and integration are the dominating factors for the success of numerous optical devices. Conventional
manufacturing processes for the fabrication of precise glass optics by means of grinding and polishing cannot cope the
increasing demands in terms of precision, volume and costs. Here, precision glass molding is the enabling technology to
meet these demands of the future optical products and applications. Since the market requests further miniaturization and
integration of the micro optical components the possession of the entire sequence of processes is absolutely essential.
With the accomplished and ongoing developments at the Fraunhofer IPT, the replication of double-sided (a)spherical and
(a)cylindrical glass lenses with form accuracies of < 150 nm as well as lens arrays and even freeform optics could be
realized. Therefore, a sequence of processes needs to be passed. The FEM-simulation of the molding process which was
driven to a point capable to simulate even the molding of freeform optics is the first process step. Further on, new mold
design concepts were generated to enable the replication of free formed optics. The research works focusing on the mold
manufacturing led to sophisticated grinding process strategies able to realized complex mold geometries such as lens
arrays. With regard to the coating of the molds, proceedings were developed assuring a defect free and uniform coating
which enables the longevity of the molds and therewith helps reducing the final costs per lens. Thus, the precision glass
molding becomes more and more interesting even for highly complex mid volume lots, characteristic for European or US
optics manufacturer.
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Recently and upcoming optical applications depend more and more on the precision of the optical elements used. The
last is especially driven by shorter wavelength, higher flux densities and imaging close to the diffraction limit. Therefore
a dramatically increasing demand on high precision and high quality optical components in leading edge equipment as
well as common devices and instruments is observed.
So far a few methods have been introduced to provide an adequate manufacturing performance using mechanical grinding
and polishing techniques. Up to now the very sophisticated ion beam figuring (IBF) has not been used for common
optics. The reasons for this might be the perception of higher costs and less knowledge about the technique in the industry.
Now an affordable ion beam figuring technique has been developed to address precision aspherical optics applications.
This paper introduces ion beam figuring technology based on equipment which is widely used in semiconductor mass
production for ultra precise film thickness trimming.
Ion beam figuring works by raster-scanning a focused broad ion beam across an optical surface with variable velocity
and dwell time in order to precisely and locally trim away surface contour errors.
As a new and cost effective approach the ion beam figuring system used in this presentation applies a 3 axis movement
system only (compared to expensive 5-axis movements in other applications). X-and y-axes are used for the areal scan,
and the z-axis is used for focus adjustment due to the surface contour of the optical element. The system was intentionally
designed without the 2 additional tilt axes for incident angle adjustment and cleverly reduces the complexity and size
of the system.
It is shown that curved spherical or aspherical surfaces can be corrected down to λ/50 or better by using the state of the
art 3-axes trimming system. Even with high spatial frequency parts final processing qualities better than λ/10 are
achieved.
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Subwavelength structures open up the possibility to create an artificial index material which enables the realization of
high-efficient diffractive structures. This can be used to generate optical elements with nearly arbitrary phase profiles.
We demonstrate the realization of computer-generated holograms based on this effective medium approach. High
diffraction efficiencies can be realized by multi-phase-level modulation based on two-dimensional binary nanostructures.
The fabrication is performed by one lithographical step using a high-speed e-beam writer which allows high-resolution
patterning even on large areas. A diffractive element in the visible range is experimentally demonstrated using the
presented effective index approach.
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This study presents a novel fabrication method of corrugated long-period fiber gratings (CLPFG). The chemical
wet etching process is used to fabricate the CLPFG, and the patterned SU-8 50 photoresist is used as etch mask. Since the
CLPFG fabricated by the novel method reduces the complication and cost, it is suitable for mass production. In this study,
the period of the CLPFG is 690 μm and the resonant-attenuation wavelength is 1558 nm. The maximum
resonance-attenuation of the CLPFG is 23 dB. Eventually, the CLPFG in this study has demonstrated a high temperature
sensitivity (60 pm/ °C), wavelength-shifting linearity (R2=0.99), and 1°C of resolution.
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The conductivity of colloidal inks composed of poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG), 2-(4-tert-Butylphenyl)-5-(4-biphenylyl)-
1,3,4-oxadiazole (tPBD) or polystyrene-tPBD copolymerized colloids (PS-PBD) and carbon black (CB) were
investigated to establish their percolation characteristics. The PS-PBD colloid supported inks (PEG/PS-PBD/CB)
exhibited reduced percolation thresholds and enhanced conductivities above that of the individually carbon filled
(PEG/CB) and small molecule blend (PEG/tPBD/CB) inks. Based on the DC conductivity analysis, the percolation
threshold of the PEG/PS-PBD/CB composites was 3.6 vol%. The electrical resistivity of the PEG/PS-PBD/CB ink is
lower than that of PEG/PBD/CB ink with the same CB content in the percolation region by 8 orders of magnitude. The
percolation reduction was attributed to the heterogeneous dispersion of conductive filler aggregates "bridged" by PSPBD
colloids. The aggregated dispersion of PS-PBD colloids in the ink matrix was characterized by photoluminescence
spectroscopy (PL) which produced a red-shift at high concentrations, signaling the required proximity of PS-PBD
colloids to form energy transfer complexes.
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When a plastic substrate is under a highlight, the reflected light on the substrate always dazzles the observer. To prevent
the effect, anti-reflected (AR) coating is applied. However AR-coating is difficult to be designed with wide wavelength
range. In this research, the discontinuous metallic films were fabricated on the plastic substrates to reduce the reflection
of the plastic substrates with wide wavelength range. To reduce more reflectance, the discontinuous metallic film can
also be applied as the mask of selective ion etching to achieve rough surface. The results show the average reflectance of
the AR-coating on the plastic substrates has been decreased 5%. The average transmittance has been increased 3%.
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We introduce a fabrication process to immobilize cadmium selenide (CdSe) Quantum Dots (QDs) on end-facets
of metal nanowires, which can be possibly used as a cavity-free unidirectional single photon source with
high coupling efficiency due to high Purcell factor. Nanowires were fabricated using E-beam lithography, E-beam
evaporation, and lift-off process and finally covered with chemically deposited silicon dioxide (SiO2)
layer. End-facets of metal nanowires were defined using wet etching process. QD immobilization was
accomplished through surface modifications on both metal and QD surfaces. We immobilized thiol (-SH)
functionalized 15 base pair (bp) ssDNA on Au nanowire surface to hybridize with its complimentary amine (-
NH3) functionalized 15bp ssDNA and conjugated the amine functionalized 15bp ssDNA with QD. Presenting
QD immobilization method showed high selectivity between metal nanowire and SiO2 surfaces.
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Integrated passive and active devices are the key components in current and future information technology.
In order to fulfill requirements in miniaturization for (integrated) optical or electronic devices, nano-scaled
materials with a good compatibility to high-resolution processing techniques are needed. According to these
requirements, multi-photon techniques attract much attention by providing a resolution far beyond the diffraction
limit. The patterning of the inorganic-organic hybrid polymers, which are synthesized by catalytically controlled
hydrolysis/polycondensation reactions, will be discussed with respect to the underlying photochemical processes.
Emphasis will be on the direct writing of structures using femtosecond laser pulses, making use of two- and
three-photon absorption (TPA/3PA) processes with visible or IR light, which also allows one to write arbitrary
3D structures. Due to the very sharp threshold fluence for these processes and its non-linear behavior, features
down to 100 nm can be realized by choosing a suitable combination of material formulation and patterning
parameters. Voxel arrays were written, whereas the resulting voxel sizes are compared to a growth model, and
the influence of radical diffusion and chain propagation is discussed. In order to determine the TPA cross-section
and to estimate the role of the photoinitiator, a z-scan experiment was realized. The initiators' cross-sections
will be correlated to the resulting voxel sizes.
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The integration of nanowires in photonic and photovoltaic devices have been discussed and studied by researchers for
some time. Chemical vapor deposition (CVD) growth techniques has been one of the methods used for obtaining device
quality nanowires that could potentially provide faster, and more efficient devices at smaller geometries. One
dimensional metal catalyzed silicon nanowires grown using CVD techniques have been seen as a possible means to
increasing electron transport and device speeds for silicon based electronics. In this experiment the possibility of
integrating titanium catalyzed silicon nanowires grown using an atmospheric pressure based CVD method are
investigated for possible use in silicon electronics. Growth experiments were conducted at various partial pressures of
silicon tetrachloride, temperatures, and growth times to determine optimum growth rates and the window for oriented,
straight silicon nanowires. Using linear regression analysis on a sample set of the grown nanowires we are left with the
conclusion that nanowires grown using APCVD may possibly be growth limited due to diffusion through the solid
catalyst interface and/or due to crystallization. Further experiments maybe needed to further validate titanium-catalyzed
silicon nanowire growths and its optimum conditions. Overall, titanium-catalyzed silicon nanowires grown using an
APCVD system provides a cost-effective method for growing silicon nanowires that could be used in future silicon
based devices.
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