Fluorescence correlation spectroscopy (FCS) and related fluctuation spectroscopy and microscopy methods have become important research tools that enable detailed investigations of the chemical and physical properties of molecules and molecular systems in a variety of complex environments. When analyzed successfully fluctuation measurements often provide unique information that is otherwise difficult to measure, such as molecular concentrations and interaction stoichiometry. However, information recovery via curve fitting of fluctuation data can present challenges due to limited resolution and/or problems with fitting model verification. We discuss a new approach to fluctuation data analysis coupling multi-modal fluorescence measurements and global analysis, and demonstrate how this approach can provide enhanced sensitivity and resolution in fluctuation measurements. We illustrate the approach using a combination of FCS and fluorescence lifetime measurements, here called τFCS, and demonstrate the capability to recover the concentration of two independent molecular species in a two component mixture even when the species have identical diffusion coefficients and molecular brightness values. This work was partially supported by NSF grants MCB0817966 and DMR0907435.

Multi-photon excitation (MPE) imaging is dominated by the Ti:Sapphire laser as the source for excitation. However, it is limited when considering 3PE of common fluorophores and efficient 2PE of UV dyes which require wavelengths beyond the range of the Ti:Sapphire. Two ultra-short pulsed sources are presented as alternatives: a novel optical parametric oscillator (OPO) geometry (1400–1600nm) and the sum-frequency mixing of an OPO and Yb-doped fibre laser, providing a tunable output (626-635nm). For long wavelengths, we report three-photon laser scanning microscopy (3PLSM) using a bi-directional pumped optical parametric oscillator (OPO) with signal wavelength output at 1500 nm. This novel laser was used to overcome the high optical loss in the infrared spectral region observed in laser scanning microscopes and objective lenses that renders them otherwise difficult to use for imaging. To test our system, we performed 3PLSM auto-fluorescence imaging of live plant cells at 1500 nm, specifically Spirogyra, and compared performance with two-photon excitation (2PLSM) imaging using a femtosecond pulsed Ti:Sapphire laser at 780 nm. Analysis of cell viability based on cytoplasmic organelle streaming and structural changes of cells revealed that at similar peak powers, 2PLSM caused gross cell damage after 5 minutes but 3PLSM showed little or no interference with cell function after 15 minutes. The 1500 nm OPO was thus shown to be a practical laser source for live cell imaging. For short wavelengths, we report the use of an all-solid-state ultra-short pulsed source specifically for two-photon microscopy at wavelengths shorter than those of the conventional Ti:Sapphire laser. Our approach involved sumfrequency mixing of the output from the long-wavelength OPO described above with residual pump radiation to generate fs-pulsed output in the red spectral region. We demonstrated the performance of our ultra-short pulsed system using fluorescently labelled and autofluorescent tissue, and compared with conventional Ti:Sapphire excitation. We observed a more than 3-fold increase in fluorescence signal intensity using our visible laser source in comparison with the Ti:Sapphire laser for two-photon excitation at equal illumination powers of 22 mW or less.

We have developed a video-rate stimulated Raman scattering (SRS) microscope with frame-by-frame wavenumber tunability. The system uses a 76-MHz picosecond Ti:sapphire laser and a subharmonically synchronized, 38-MHz Yb fiber laser. The Yb fiber laser pulses are spectrally sliced by a fast wavelength-tunable filter, which consists of a galvanometer scanner, a 4-f optical system and a reflective grating. The spectral resolution of the filter is ~ 3 cm^-1. The wavenumber was scanned from 2800 to 3100 cm^-1 with an arbitrary waveform synchronized to the frame trigger. For imaging, we introduced a 8-kHz resonant scanner and a galvanometer scanner. We were able to acquire SRS images of 500 x 480 pixels at a frame rate of 30.8 frames/s. Then these images were processed by principal component analysis followed by a modified algorithm of independent component analysis. This algorithm allows blind separation of constituents with overlapping Raman bands from SRS spectral images. The independent component (IC) spectra give spectroscopic information, and IC images can be used to produce pseudo-color images. We demonstrate various label-free imaging modalities such as 2D spectral imaging of the rat liver, two-color 3D imaging of a vessel in the rat liver, and spectral imaging of several sections of intestinal villi in the mouse. Various structures in the tissues such as lipid droplets, cytoplasm, fibrous texture, nucleus, and water-rich region were successfully visualized.

Higher-order nonlinearity of light–matter interactions, such as second and third harmonic generation (SHG and THG) and Coherent anti-Stokes Raman Scattering (CARS) can be used for improving spatial resolution in microscopy as a consequence of the confinement of the nonlinear polarization to the high-intensity region of the focal volume. However, the resolution is limited to ~300 nm, not sufficient to resolve macromolecules or nanostructures of interest in the bio-, life-and nano-sciences. In the strive to push the resolution beyond the diffraction limit, allowing for nanoscale imaging, we have equipped a nonlinear optical microscope with a scanning-probe setup operated in tapping-mode feedback. A tapered, gold-coated, open-aperture tip with an aperture diameter of ~150 nm is scanned over the sample, probing the nonlinear nearfield generated by free-beam excitation. First nonlinear coherent Raman nearfield images of biological macromolecules and metallic nanostructures are shown. Limitations and future challenges with nonlinear nearfield microscopy are discussed.

The existence of non-resonant background severely decreases the image contrast and may overwhelm the resonant signal from small scatterers in coherent anti-Stokes Raman scattering (CARS) microscopy. In this study, we found that by using circularly polarized pump and Stokes excitations with inverse rotation directions, the non-resonant as well as the resonant CARS generation from molecules with symmetry can be totally suppressed, whereas the resonant CARS signal from asymmetric molecules preserves. This unique property of circularly polarized CARS is useful for high-contrast imaging of asymmetric samples without the interference of non-resonant background, which is demonstrated by the imaging of natural silk fibers.

Though single-color coherent Raman microscopy has been widely used for vibrational imaging of isolated Raman bands, it is still challenging to visualize molecules having overlapping Raman bands. We address this issue by developing a spectroscopic SRS microscope with a time-lens laser source synchronized to a femtosecond laser. The time-lens source provides 2-ps pulse at the wavelength of 1064 nm. A pulse shaper is installed for intra-pulse spectral scanning of the femtosecond laser output. By electronically modulating the time-lens source at MHz frequency, spectroscopic stimulated Raman loss (SRL) images were obtained on a laser-scanning microscope. Using this microscope, we have been able to detect 0.2% DMSO in aqueous solution. Spectroscopic SRL images of prostate cancer cells were obtained. Multivariate curve resolution analysis was further applied to decompose the SRL images into concentration maps of proteins and lipids. With high sensitivity and high spectral resolution, this method offers exciting potential in label-free imaging of live cells using fingerprint Raman bands.

The CARS spectroscopy system using the dual-wavelength oscillation electronically wavelength tuned laser as a pumping light source were constructed to realizes more sensitive full range non-chromosomal spectroscopy. Simpler configuration of CARS optical system was realized by using the laser. To realize the CARS system, the methods to synchronize the pulses with two different wavelengths generated from the dual-wavelength oscillation electronically wavelength tuned laser was demonstrated by using sum frequency generation.

The current trend in laser sources for Coherent Anti-Stokes Raman Scattering (CARS) microscopy consists of picosecond optical parametric oscillators (OPO)s and femtosecond-pumped fiber supercontinuum sources. While both methods are proven CARS performers, restricted wavelength tuning range and low power limit the Raman lines and types of samples that may be practically interrogated. To address these limitations, we present a novel, highly tunable spectrally focused femtosecond Optical Parametric Amplifier (OPA) and microscope system optimized for CARS microscopy. The laser source consists of an amplified ytterbium fiber laser driving a pair of OPAs producing two outputs that produce tunable femtosecond pulses from 650 to 1300nm. Each OPA may be tuned independently of the other over its entire range, allowing the addressing of any arbitrary wavenumber from 0 to 7700 cm^-1. Additionally, the complete freedom of tuning allows one beam to be set at the optimal wavelength for a complementary technique, such as twophoton fluorescence or second harmonic, while the second beam is then tuned to the desired wavenumber difference for CARS. The femtosecond pulses are chirped out to the picosecond regime, reducing non-resonant background and providing improved spectral resolution. Typically, OPA systems are limited to kHz repetition rates, making them impractical for imaging applications. In contrast, our OPA system is driven at 1 MHz, providing a sufficient pulse rate for high-resolution imaging at rates of 1-2 frames per second. The 1 MHz rate preserves good pulse energy while reducing average power, thus limiting sample photo damage.

The ability to visualize cellular structures and tissue molecular signatures in a live body could revolutionize the practice of surgery. Specifically, such technology is promising for replacing tissue extraction biopsy and offering new strategies for a broad range of intraoperative or surgical applications, including early cancer detection, tumor margin identification, nerve damage avoidance, and surgical outcomes enhancement. Coherent anti-Stokes Raman scattering (CARS) microendoscopy offers a way to achieve this with label-free imaging capability and sub-cellular resolution. However, efficient collection of epi-CARS signals and reduction of nonlinear effects in fibers are two major challenges encountered in the development of fiber-based CARS microendoscopy. To circumvent this problem, we designed and developed a fiber bundle for a CARS microendoscopy prototype. The excitation lasers were delivered by a single multimode fiber at the center of the bundle while the epi-CARS signals were collected by multiple MMFs surrounding the central fiber. A polarization scheme was employed to suppress the four-wave mixing (FWM) effect in the excitation fiber. Our experimental results suggest that, with this fiber bundle and the polarization FWM-suppressing scheme, the signal-to-noise ratio of the CARS images was greatly enhanced through a combination of high collection efficiency of epi-CARS signals, isolation of excitation lasers, and suppression of FWM. Tissue imaging capability of the microendoscopy prototype was demonstrated by ex vivo imaging on mouse skin and lung tissues. This fiber bundle-based CARS microendoscopy prototype, with the polarization FWM-suppressing scheme, offers a promising platform for constructing efficient fiber-based CARS microendoscopes for label free intraoperative imaging applications.

Microscopic chemical mapping of living plant tissues without the use of extrinsic labels would represent a major advance in analytical capability for many areas of biological research; Coherent Raman Scattering (CRS) microscopy offers label-free chemical imaging based on vibrational spectroscopy and is an obvious solution. However, due to the high levels of optical absorption and fluorescent emission in plant tissues the technique is severely limited for in-vivo plant imaging. This paper reports preliminary results regarding the technical issues associated with performing label-free imaging in plant tissues with CRS and discusses how they may be mitigated in future applications.

Microscopic imaging based on multiphoton fluorescence, second harmonic generation (SHG) and coherent anti-Stokes Raman scattering (CARS) imaging has been realized in one common platform which is appropriate for use in hospitals. The different optical modalities non-invasively provide in vivo images from human skin with subcellular resolution, at different depths based on endogenous fluorescent, SHG-active molecules as well as non-fluorescent molecules with vibrational resonances at 2845 cm^-1, in particular lipids. An overview of the system employing a Ti:sapphire laser and photonic crystal fiber to generate the excitation light as well as several imaging examples are presented.

Hyperspectral coherent anti-Stokes Raman scattering (CARS) microscopy is quickly becoming a prominent imaging modality because of its many advantages over the traditional paradigm of multispectral CARS. In particular, recording a significant portion of the vibrational spectrum at each spatial pixel allows image-wide spectral analysis at much higher rates than can be achieved with spontaneous Raman. We recently developed a hyperspectral CARS method, the driving principle behind which is the fast acquisition and display of a hyperspectral datacube as a set of intuitive images wherein each material in a sample appears with a unique trio of colors. Here we use this system to image and analyze two types of polymorphic samples: the pseudopolymorphic hydration of theophylline, and the packing polymorphs of the sugar alcohol mannitol. In addition to these solid-state form modifications we have observed spectral variations of crystalline mannitol and diprophylline as functions of their orientations relative to the optical fields. We use that information to visualize the distributions of these compounds in a pharmaceutical solid oral dosage form.

The peripheral nervous system plays an important role in motility, sensory, and autonomic functions of the human body. Preservation of peripheral nerves in surgery is essential for improving quality of life of patients. To preserve peripheral nerves, detection of ne peripheral nerves that cannot be identi ed by human eye or under white light imaging is necessary. In this study, we sought to provide a proof-of-principle demonstration of a label-free detection technique of peripheral nerve tissues against adjacent tissues that employs spontaneous Raman microspectroscopy. A line-illumination confocal Raman microscope was used for the experiment. A laser operating at the wavelength of 532 nm was used as an excitation laser light. We obtained Raman spectra of peripheral nerve, brous connective tissue, skeletal muscle, blood vessel, and adipose tissue of Wistar rats, and extracted speci c spectral features of peripheral nerves and adjacent tissues. By applying multivariate image analysis, peripheral nerves were clearly detected against adjacent tissues without any preprocessing neither xation nor staining. These results suggest the potential of the Raman spectroscopic observation for noninvasive and label-free nerve detection, and we expect this method could be a key technique for nerve-sparing surgery.

F_oF₁-ATP synthase is the membrane protein catalyzing the synthesis of the 'biological energy currency' adenosine triphosphate (ATP). The enzyme uses internal subunit rotation for the mechanochemical conversion of a proton motive force to the chemical bond. We apply single-molecule Förster resonance energy transfer (FRET) to monitor subunit rotation in the two coupled motors F₁ and F_o. Therefore, enzymes have to be isolated from the plasma membranes of Escherichia coli, fluorescently labeled and reconstituted into 120-nm sized lipid vesicles to yield proteoliposomes. These freely diffusing proteoliposomes occasionally traverse the confocal detection volume resulting in a burst of photons. Conformational dynamics of the enzyme are identified by sequential changes of FRET efficiencies within a single photon burst. The observation times can be extended by capturing single proteoliposomes in an anti-Brownian electrokinetic trap (ABELtrap, invented by A. E. Cohen and W. E. Moerner). Here we describe the preparation procedures of F_oF₁-ATP synthase and simulate FRET efficiency trajectories for 'trapped' proteoliposomes. Hidden Markov Models are applied at signal-to-background ratio limits for identifying the dwells and substeps of the rotary enzyme when running at low ATP concentrations, excited by low laser power, and confined by the ABELtrap.

Near-infrared (NIR) dyes are used as fluorescence markers in small-animal imaging and in diffuse optical tomography of the human brain. In these applications it is important to know whether the dyes bind to proteins or other tissue constituents, and whether their fluorescence lifetimes depend on the targets they are bound to. Unfortunately, neither the lasers nor the detectors of commonly used confocal and multiphoton laser scanning microscopes allow for excitation and detection of NIR fluorescence. We therefore upgraded existing confocal TCSPC FLIM systems with NIR lasers and NIR sensitive detectors. In multiphoton systems we used the Ti:Sa laser as a one-photon excitation source in combination with an NIR-sensitive detector in the confocal beam path. We tested a number of NIR dyes in biological tissue. Some of them showed clear lifetime changes depending on the tissue structures they are bound to. We therefore believe that NIR FLIM can deliver supplementary information on the tissue constitution and on local biochemical parameters.

Biomembranes are ordered and dynamic nanoscale structures critical for cell functions. The biological functions of the membranes strongly depend on their physicochemical properties, such as electrostatics, phase state, viscosity, polarity and hydration. These properties are essential for the membrane structure and the proper folding and function of membrane proteins. To monitor these properties, fluorescence techniques and notably, two-photon microscopy appear highly suited due to their exquisite sensitivity and their capability to operate in complex biological systems, such as living cells and tissues. In this context, we have developed multiparametric environment-sensitive fluorescent probes tailored for precise location in the membrane bilayer. We notably developed probes of the 3-hydroxychromone family, characterized by an excited state intramolecular proton transfer reaction, which generates two tautomeric emissive species with well-separated emission bands. As a consequence, the response of these probes to changes in their environment could be monitored through changes in the ratios of the two bands, as well as through changes in the fluorescence lifetimes. Using two-photon ratiometric imaging and FLIM, these probes were used to monitor the surface membrane potential, and were applied to detect apoptotic cells and image membrane domains.

Fluorescence guided diagnosis of tumour tissue is in many cases insufficient, because false positive results are interfering with the outcome. Discrimination between tumour and inflammation could be therefore difficult. Improvement of fluorescence diagnosis through observation of cell metabolism could be the solution, which needs a detailed understanding of the origin of autofluorescence. However, a complex combination of fluorophores give rise to the emission signal. Also in PDD (photodynamic diagnosis) different photosensitizer metabolites contribute to the fluorescence signal. Therefore, the fluorescence decay in many cases does not show a simple monoexponential profile. In those cases a considerable improvement could be achieved when time-resolved and spectral-resolved techniques are simultaneously incorporated. The discussion will focus on the detection of NADH, FAD and 5-ALA induced porphyrins. With respect to NADH and FAD the discrimination between protein bound and free coenzyme was investigated with multispectral FLIM in normal oral keratinocytes and squamous carcinoma cells from different origin. The redox ratio, which can be correlated with the fluorescence lifetimes of NADH and FAD changed depending on the state of the cells. Most of the investigations were done in monolayer cell cultures. However, in order to get information from a more realistic in vivo situation additionally the chorioallantoismembrane (CAM) of fertilized eggs was used where tumour cells or biopsies were allowed to grow. The results of theses measurements will be discussed as well.

The genus Gluconobacter is frequently used for biotechnological and/or nanotechnological applications. We studied endogenous fluorescence of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (phosphate) (NAD(P)H), indicator of the oxidative metabolic state in mammalian cells, in Gluconobacter oxydans (G. oxydans). Time-resolved measurements (excitation by 375nm pulsed diode laser) were employed to record the bacterial fluorescence intensity, as well as its modifications by metabolic modulation. Results were gathered on fresh bacteria, on de-frozen ones, as well as on bacteria encapsulated in alginate beads. NAD(P)H fluorescence increased linearly with the concentration of bacteria. Freezing, which has little effect on the viability of bacteria or the concentration-dependent fluorescence rise, affected the temperature-dependence of NAD(P)H fluorescence. Sodium cyanide (10 mM) provoked significant rise in the NAD(P)H fluorescence, while dinitrophenol (200 μM) induced its decrease, confirming the bacterial NAD(P)H fluorescence sensitivity to modulators of electron transport chain. Gathered results demonstrate that endogenous NAD(P)H fluorescence can be successfully recorded in the bacterial strain G. oxydans using time-resolved measurements.

Forster/Fluorescence resonant energy transfer (FRET) has become an extremely important technique to explore biological interactions in cells and tissues. As the non-radiative transfer of energy from the donor to acceptor occurs typically only within 1-10nm, FRET measurement allows the user to detect localisation events between protein-conjugated fluorophores. Compared to other techniques, the use of time correlated single photon counting (TCSPC) to measure fluorescence lifetime (FLIM) has become the gold standard for measuring FRET interactions in cells. The technique is fundamentally superior to all existing techniques due to its near ideal counting efficiency, inherent low excitation light flux (reduced photobleaching and toxicity) and time resolution. Unfortunately due to its slow acquisition time when compared with other techniques, such as Frequency-domain lifetime determination or anisotropy, this makes it impractical for measuring dynamic protein interactions in cells. The relatively slow acquisition time of TCSPC FLIM-FRET is simply due to the system usually employing a single-beam scanning approach where each lifetime (and thus FRET interaction) is determined individually on a voxel by voxel basis. In this paper we will discuss the development a microscope system which will parallelize TCSPC for FLIM-FRET in a multi-beam multi-detector format. This will greatly improve the speed at which the system can operate, whilst maintaining both the high temporal resolution and the high signal-to-noise for which typical TCPSC systems are known for. We demonstrate this idea using spatial light modulator (SLM) generated beamlets and single photon avalanche detector (SPAD) array. The performance is evaluated on a plant specimen.

Stimulated Raman scattering (SRS) spectral microscopy is a powerful technique for label-free biological imaging because it allows us to distinguish chemical species with overlapping Raman bands. Here we present an SRS spectral microscope based only on fiber lasers (FL’s), which offer the possibilities of downsizing and simplification of the system. A femtosecond figure-8 Er-FL at a repetition rate of 54.4 MHz is used to generate pump pulses. After amplified by an Er doped fiber amplifier, Er-FL pulses are spectrally compressed to 2-ps second harmonic pulses. For generating Stokes pulses, a femtosecond Yb-FL pulses at a repetition rate of 27.2 MHz is used. Then these lasers are synchronized by a phase locked loop, which consists of a two-photon absorption photodetector, a loop filter, a phase modulator in the Er- FL cavity, and a piezo electric transducer in the Yb-FL cavity. The intensity noise of pump pulses is reduced by the collinear balanced detection (CBD) technique based on delay-and-add fiber lines. Experimentally, we confirmed that the intensity noise level of probe pulses was close to the shot noise limit. The Stokes pulses are introduced to a wavelength tunable band pass filter (BPF), which consists of a galvanomirror scanner, a 4-f optical system, a reflection grating, and a collimator. This system is able to scan the wavenumber from 2850 cm^-1 to 3100 cm^-1 by tuning the BPF. We succeeded in the spectral imaging of a mixture of polystyrene beads and poly(methyl methacrylate) beads.

We constructed an advanced detection system for two-photon fluorescence microscopy that allows us to image in biological tissue and tissue phantoms up to the depth of a few mm with micron resolution. The innovation lies in the detection system which is much more sensitive to low level fluorescence signals than the fluorescence detection configuration used in conventional two-photon fluorescence microscopes. A wide area photocathode photomultiplier tube (PMT) was used to detect fluorescence photons directly from a wide (1 inch diameter) area of the turbid sample, as opposed to the photon collection by the microscope objective which can only collect light from a relatively small area of the sample. The optical path between the sample and the photocathode is refractive index matched to curtail losses at the boundaries due to reflections. The system has been successfully employed in the imaging of tissue phantoms simulating brain optical properties and in biological tissues, such as murine small intestine, colon, tumors, and other samples. The system has in-depth fluorescence lifetime imaging (FLIM) capabilities and is also highly suitable for SHG signal detection, such as collagen fibers and muscles, due to the intrinsically forward-directed propagation of SHG photons.

In vivo imaging of pigmented lesions in human skin was performed with a clinical multiphoton microscopy (MPM)-based tomograph (MPTflex, JenLab, Germany). Two-photon excited fluorescence was used for visualizing endogenous fluorophores such as NADH/FAD, keratin, melanin in the epidermal cells and elastin fibers in the dermis. Collagen fibers were imaged by second harmonic generation. Our study involved in vivo imaging of benign melanocytic nevi, atypical nevi and melanoma. The goal of this preliminary study was to identify in vivo the characteristic features and their frequency in pigmented lesions at different stages (benign, atypical and malignant) and to evaluate the ability of in vivo MPM to distinguish atypical nevi from melanoma. Comparison with histopathology was performed for the biopsied lesions. Benign melanocytic nevi were characterized by the presence of nevus cell nests at the epidermal-dermal junction. In atypical nevi, features such as lentiginous hyperplasia, acanthosis and architectural disorder were imaged. Cytological atypia was present in all the melanoma lesions imaged, showing the strongest correlation with malignancy. The MPM images demonstrated very good correlation with corresponding histological images, suggesting that MPM could be a promising tool for in vivo non-invasive pigmented lesion diagnosis, particularly distinguishing atypical nevi from melanoma.

New labeling, imaging, or analysis tools could provide new retrospective insights when applied to archived, paraffin-embedded samples. Deep-tissue multiphoton microscopy of paraffin-embedded specimens is achieved using optical clearing with mineral oil. We tested a variety of murine tissue specimens including skin, lung, spleen, kidney, and heart, acquiring multiphoton autofluorescence and second-harmonic generation, and pump-probe images This technique introduces the capability for non-destructive 3-dimensional microscopic imaging of existing archived pathology specimens, enabling retrospective studies.

Upconversion in rare-earth ions is a sequential multiphoton process that efficiently converts two or more low-energy photons, which are generally near infrared (NIR) light, to produce anti-Stokes emission of a higher energy photon (e.g., NIR, visible, ultraviolet) using continuous-wave (cw) diode laser excitation. Here, we show the engineering of novel, efficient, and biocompatible NIR_in-to-NIR_out upconversion nanoparticles for biomedical imaging with both excitation and emission being within the “optical transparency window” of tissues. The small animal whole-body imaging with exceptional contrast (signal-to-noise ratio of 310) was shown using BALB/c mice intravenously injected with aqueously dispersed nanoparticles. An imaging depth as deep as 3.2-cm was successfully demonstrated using thick animal tissue (pork) under cw laser excitation at 980 nm.

Fluorescence lifetime imaging microscopy (FLIM) is a well established approach for measuring dynamic signalling events inside living cells, including detection of protein-protein interactions. The improvement in optical penetration of infrared light compared with linear excitation due to Rayleigh scattering and low absorption have provided imaging depths of up to 1mm in brain tissue but significant image degradation occurs as samples distort (aberrate) the infrared excitation beam. Multiphoton time-correlated single photon counting (TCSPC) FLIM is a method for obtaining functional, high resolution images of biological structures. In order to achieve good statistical accuracy TCSPC typically requires long acquisition times. We report the development of a multifocal multiphoton microscope (MMM), titled MegaFLI. Beam parallelization performed via a 3D Gerchberg–Saxton (GS) algorithm using a Spatial Light Modulator (SLM), increases TCSPC count rate proportional to the number of beamlets produced. A weighted 3D GS algorithm is employed to improve homogeneity. An added benefit is the implementation of flexible and adaptive optical correction. Adaptive optics performed by means of Zernike polynomials are used to correct for system induced aberrations. Here we present results with significant improvement in throughput obtained using a novel complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor (CMOS) 1024 pixel single-photon avalanche diode (SPAD) array, opening the way to truly high-throughput FLIM.

We present a multiphoton microscope system which combines the advantages of multiphoton imaging with precise control of the sample temperature. The microscope provides online insight in temperature-induced changes and effects in plant tissue and animal cells with subcellular resolution during cooling and thawing processes. Image contrast is based on multiphoton fluorescence intensity or fluorescence lifetime in the range from liquid nitrogen temperature up to +600°C. In addition, micro spectra from the imaged regions can be recorded. We present measurement results from plant leaf samples as well as Chinese hamster ovary cells.

In the adult nervous system, different populations of neurons correspond to different regenerative behavior. Although previous works showed that olivocerebellar fibers are capable of axonal regeneration in a suitable environment as a response to injury¹, we have hitherto no details about the real dynamics of fiber regeneration. We set up a model of singularly axotomized climbing fibers (CF) to investigate their reparative properties in the adult central nervous system (CNS) in vivo. Time lapse two-photon imaging has been combined to laser nanosurgery^{2, 3} to define a temporal pattern of the degenerative event and to follow the structural rearrangement after injury. To characterize the damage and to elucidate the possible formation of new synaptic contacts on the sprouted branches of the lesioned CF, we combined two-photon in vivo imaging with block face scanning electron microscopy (FIB-SEM). Here we describe the approach followed to characterize the reactive plasticity after injury.

Action potential, via the transverse axial tubular system (TATS), synchronously triggers uniform Ca²⁺ release throughout the cardiomyocyte. Cardiac diseases associated with TATS structural remodeling preclude a uniform Ca²⁺ release across the myocyte, contributing to contractile dysfunction. A simultaneous recording of intracellular local Ca²⁺ release and action potential in tubular network can be useful to unravel the link between TATS abnormality and dysfunctional EC coupling. Here we combine the advantage of an ultrafast random access multi-photon (RAMP) microscope with a double staining approach to optically record AP in several TATS elements and, simultaneously, the corresponding local Ca²⁺ transient. Isolated rat cardiomyocytes were labeled with a novel voltage sensitive dye (VSD) and a calcium indicator. RAMP microscope rapidly scans between lines drawn across the TATS of the cardiomyocyte to perform a multiplexed measurement of the two fluorescence signals. Although the calcium and voltage indicators can be excited at the same wavelength, the large Stokes shift of the VSD emission allows us to use spectral unmixing to resolve the voltage and calcium responses. In healthy cardiomyocytes, we found uniform AP propagation within the TATS and homogeneous Ca²⁺ release throughout the whole cell. The capability of our technique in probing spatiotemporal relationship between Ca²⁺ and electrical activity was then explored in a model of acute detubulation in which failure to conduct AP in disconnected TATS may cause local delay of Ca²⁺ transient rise leading to non-homogenous Ca²⁺ release.

We combined two-photon fluorescence and coherent anti-Stokes Raman scattering (CARS) imaging in a clinical hybrid multiphoton tomograph for in vivo imaging of human skin. The clinically approved TPEF/CARS system provides simultaneous imaging of endogenous fluorophores and non-fluorescent lipids. The Stokes laser for the two-beam configuration of CARS is based on spectral broadening of femtosecond laser pulses in a photonic crystal fiber (PCF). We report on the highly flexible medical TPEF/CARS tomograph MPTflex®-CARS with an articulated arm and first in vivo measurements on human skin.

Previous research has shown that melanin goes through a step-wise three-photon absorption process when the fluorescence is activated with high laser intensity. We have conducted further research using even higher laser intensity for the activation, and have shown the possibility of observing power dependence other than third-order. This article discusses the possible energy states of Sepia melanin by studying the power dependence curves of the step-wise multi-photon activated fluorescence signal. Three different excitation channels are activated. Possible reasons causing the three channels are discussed.

Colon cancer is one of the most diffused cancers in the Western World, ranking third worldwide in frequency of incidence after lung and breast cancers. Even if it is curable when detected and treated early, a more accurate premature diagnosis would be a suitable aim for both cancer prognostic and treatment. Combined multimodal nonlinear optical (NLO) microscopies, such as two-photon excitation fluorescence (TPEF), second-harmonic generation (SHG), third harmonic generation (THG), and fluorescence lifetime imaging microscopy (FLIM) can be used to detect morphological and metabolic changes associated with stroma and epithelial transformation in colon cancer disease. NLO microscopes provide complementary information about tissue microstructure, showing distinctive patterns between normal and malignant human colonic mucosa. Using a set of scoring methods significant differences both in the content, distribution and organization of stroma collagen fibrils, and lifetime components of NADH and FAD cofactors of human colon mucosa biopsies were found. Our results provide a framework for using NLO techniques as a clinical diagnostic tool for human colon cancer, and also suggest that the SHG and FLIM metrics could be applied to other intestinal disorders, which are characterized by abnormal cell proliferation and collagen assembly.

Real time and in vivo monitoring leukocyte behavior provides unique information to understand the physiological and pathological process of infection. In this study, we demonstrate that two-photon excited reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NADH) fluorescence provides imaging contrast to distinguish granulocyte and agranulocyte. By using spectral and time-resolved NADH fluorescence, we study the immune response of human neutrophils against bacterial infection (Escherichia coli). The two-photon excited NADH fluorescence images clearly review the morphological changes from resting neutrophils (round shape) to activated neutrophils (ruffle shape) during phagocytosis. The free-tobound NADH ratio of neutrophils decreases after ingesting disease-causing pathogen: Escherichia coli. This finding may provide a new optical tool to investigate inflammatory processes by using NADH fluorescence in vivo.

In recent years, interest in studying the components of the cornea and their arrangement, with emphasis on the corneal stroma, has expanded rapidly. By determining the corneal stroma’s organization in detail, we will understand better the relationship between its structure and functionality. Here, the cornea’s collagen lamellae were scanned using second harmonic generation (SHG) microscopy, in order to determine the orientation of fibers in different directions within a two-dimensional cross section. A unique algorithm was used to quantitatively measure the directions. Cross sections were obtained at several different depths in each sample. This work offers supplemental sectioning revelations to the methods historically used to scan at the lamella level, such as X-ray diffraction.

A hierarchical model of the organization of fibrillar collagen is developed and its implications on polarization-resolved second harmonic generation (SHG) microscopy are investigated. A “ground-up” approach is employed to develop the theory for understanding of the origin of SHG from fibrillar collagen. The effects of fibril ultrastructure and fibril macroscopic organization on the second-order polarization properties of fibrillar collagen are presented in conjunction with recent ab initio results performed on a collagen triple-helix model (-GLY-PRO-HYP-)_n. Various tissues containing fibrillar collagen are quantified using a polarization-resolved SHG technique, termed polarization-in, polarization-out (PIPO) and interpreted in light of the aforementioned theory. The method involves varying the incident laser polarization, while monitoring the SHG intensity through an analyzer. From the SHG polarization data the orientation of the fibers, in biological tissue, can be deduced. Unique PIPO signatures are observed for different rat tissues and interpreted in terms of the collagen composition, fibril ultrastructure, and macroscopic organization. Similarities and discrepancies in the second-order polarization properties of different collagen types and ultrastructures will be presented. PIPO SHG microscopy shows promise in its ability to quantify the organization of collagen in various tissues. The ability to characterize the structure of collagen in various tissue microenvironments will aid in the study of numerous collagen related biological process, including tissue diseases, wound repair, and tumor development and progression.

Lung is a complex gas exchanger with interfacial area (where the gas exchange takes place) is about the size of a tennis court. Respiratory function is linked to the biomechanical stability of the gas exchange or alveolar regions which directly depends on the spatial distributions of the extracellular matrix fibers such fibrillar collagens and elastin fibers. It is very important to visualize and quantify these fibers at their native and inflated conditions to have correct morphometric information on differences between control and diseased states. This can be only achieved in the ex vivo states by imaging directly frozen lung specimens inflated to total lung capacity. Multiphoton microscopy, which uses ultra-short infrared laser pulses as the excitation source, produces multiphoton excitation fluorescence (MPEF) signals from endogenously fluorescent proteins (e.g. elastin) and induces specific second harmonic generation (SHG) signals from non-centrosymmetric proteins such as fibrillar collagens in fresh human lung tissues [J. Struct. Biol. (2010)171,189-196]. Here we report for the first time 3D image data obtained directly from thick frozen inflated lung specimens (~0.7- 1.0 millimeter thick) visualized at -60°C without prior fixation or staining in healthy and diseased states. Lung specimens donated for transplantation and released for research when no appropriate recipient was identified served as controls, and diseased lung specimens donated for research by patients receiving lung transplantation for very severe COPD (n=4) were prepared as previously described [N. Engl. J. Med. (2011) 201, 1567]. Lung slices evenly spaced between apex and base were examined using multiphoton microscopy while maintained at -60°C using a temperature controlled cold stage with a temperature resolution of 0.1°C. Infrared femto-second laser pulses tuned to 880nm, dry microscopic objectives, and non-de-scanned detectors/spectrophotometer located in the reflection geometry were used for generating the 3D images/spectral information. We found that this novel imaging approach can provide spatially resolved 3D images with spectral specificities from frozen inflated lungs that are sensitive enough to identity the micro-structural details of fibrillar collagens and elastin fibers in alveolar walls in both healthy and diseased tissues.

Without a labeling, we demonstrated that lipid granules in leukocytes have distinctive third harmonic generation (THG) contrast. Excited by a 1230nm femtosecond laser, THG signals were generated at a significantly higher level in neutrophils than other mononuclear cells, whereas signals in agranular lymphocytes were one order smaller. These characteristic THG features can also be observed in vivo to trace the newly recruited leukocytes following lipopolysaccharide (LPS) challenge. Furthermore, using video-rate THG microscopy, we also captured images of blood cells in human capillaries. Quite different from red-blood-cells, every now and then, round and granule rich blood cells with strong THG contrast appeared in circulation. The corresponding volume densities in blood, evaluated from their frequencies of appearance and the velocity of circulation, fall within the physiological range of human white blood cell counts. These results suggested that labeling-free THG imaging may provide timely tracing of leukocyte movement and hematology inspection without disturbing the normal cellular or physiological status.

Multiphoton autofluorescence microscopy (MPAM) offers the ability to assess morphometry similar to that of pathologic evaluation as well as biochemical information from endogenous fluorophores which are altered with neoplastic transformation. In this study the spectroscopic properties of normal and neoplastic oral epithelium were evaluated toward the goal of identifying image/spectroscopic based indicators of neoplastic transformation using nonlinear optical microscopy. Results indicated measureable differences between normal, dysplasia, and SCC that could be helpful in delineating between the three conditions. In particular, a blue shift in autofluorescence emission was experienced for dysplasia relative to normal. However, in the case of SCC the epithelial emission experienced a significant red shift relative to both dysplasia and normal and displayed in an additional red peak that was not present in either normal or dysplastic mucosa. Results were consistent with published results for SCC in the single-photon literature. The study demonstrates that multiphoton autofluorescence spectroscopy may reveal features of oral mucosa that can be useful for differentiating normal and neoplastic mucosa. When combined with morphometry provided by MPAM, a potentially powerful technique for imaging of the oral cavity could be developed which provides both morphometric and spectroscopic information.

Many biological systems are composed of chiral molecules and their functions depend strongly on their chirality. For example, most amino acids are of left-handed chirality while most polysaccharides are of right-handed chirality. Both of them are vital for human life, so it is important to perform chiral detection inside bio-tissues. Here we demonstrated second harmonic generation circular dichroism (SHG-CD) as a novel chiral imaging contrast in thick biotissue. Compared with conventional chiral detection, SHG-CD provides at least three orders higher contrast. In addition, due to the nonlinear nature of SHG, this technique provides optical sectioning capability, so the axial contrast is much better. The advantages of nonlinear optical microscopy are optical sectioning and deep penetration capabilities. The SHG-CD achieved 100% signal contrast with sub-micrometer spatial resolution. This method is expected to offer a novel contrast mechanism of imaging chirality inside complex bio-tissues.

Nonlinear microscopy is capable of imaging biological tissue non-invasively with sub-cellular resolution in three dimensions. For efficient multiphoton signal generation, it is necessary to focus high power, ultra-fast laser pulses into a volume of femtolitres. Aberrations introduced either by the system’s optical setup or the sample under investigation cause a broadening of the diffraction limited focal spot which leads to loss of image intensity and resolution. Adaptive optics provides a means to compensate for these aberrations and is capable of restoring resolution and signal strength when imaging at depth. We describe the use of a micro-electro-mechanical systems (MEMS) deformable membrane mirror in a multiphoton adaptive microscope. The aberration correction is determined in a wavefront sensorless approach by rapidly altering the mirror shape with a random search algorithm until the fluorescence or second harmonic signal intensity is improved. We demonstrate the benefits of wavefront correction in a wide-variety of samples, including urea crystals, convallaria and organotypic tissue cultures. We show how the optimization algorithm can be adjusted, for example by including a bleaching compensation, to allow the user to switch between different imaging modalities, producing a versatile approach to aberration correction.

One of the main advantages of nonlinear microscopy is that it provides 3D imaging capability. Second harmonic generation is widely used to image the 3D structure of collagen fibers, and several works have highlighted the modification of the collagen fiber fabric in important diseases. By using an ellipsoidal specific fitting technique on the Fourier transformed image, we show, using both synthetic images and SHG images from cartilage, that the 3D direction of the collagen fibers can be robustly determined.

Ultrafast pump-probe spectroscopy and pulse-shaping techniques are providing new modes of contrast for the field of multiphoton microscopy. Endogenous species such as heme proteins show rich nonlinear spectroscopic signatures of excited state absorption, stimulated emission and ground-state bleaching. Commercially available octave-spanning Ti:sapphire oscillators offer new opportunities for imaging based on pump-probe contrast. Spatial light modulators take advantage of this large bandwidth, shaping pulses of light to selectively excite molecular structures with similar spectral properties. We present two-color pump-probe imaging of heme proteins solutions and red blood cells.

The fluorescence properties, both intensity and fluorescence lifetime, of NADH and FAD, two coenzymes of metabolism, are sensitive, high resolution measures of cellular metabolism. However, often in vivo measurements of tissue are not feasible. In this study, we investigate the stability over time of two-photon auto-fluorescence imaging of NADH and FAD in live-cultured tissues. Our results demonstrate that cultured tissues remain viable for at least several days post excision. Furthermore, the optical redox ratio, NADH fluorescence lifetime, and FAD fluorescence lifetime do not significantly change in the cultured tissues over time. With these findings, we demonstrate the potential of sustained tissue culture techniques for optical metabolic imaging.

Stimulated Raman scattering (SRS) microscopy is a powerful tool for chemically-sensitive non-invasive optical imaging. However, the short-pulse laser sources, which are currently being employed for this imaging technique, are still expensive and require substantial maintenance to provide temporal and spectral overlap. SRS imaging, which utilizes cw laser sources, has a major advantage over pulsed lasers, as it eliminates the possibility of cell damage due to exposure to high-intensity light radiation, while substantially reducing the cost and complexity of the set-up and keeping a sub-cellular spatial resolution. As a proof-of-principle, we demonstrate microscopic imaging of dimethyl sulfoxide using two independent, commonly used and inexpensive lasers: a diode-pumped, intracavity doubled 532 nm laser and a He-Ne laser operating at 633 nm. In our proof-of-principle experience, dimethyl sulfoxide acts as a contrast agent providing Raman scattering signal. The 532 nm and 633 nm lasers act as excitation and probe sources, respectively [1].

We have demonstrated a straightforward and noninvasive method to identify the distribution of grana and starch within an intact leaf. Grana and starch are the major functional structures for photosynthesis and energy storage of plant, respectively. Both exhibit highly ordered molecular structures and appear as micrometer-sized granules inside chloroplasts. In order to distinguish grana and starch, we used multiphoton microscopy, with simultaneous acquisition of two photon fluorescence (2PF) and second harmonic generation (SHG) signals. Consequently, SHG is found on both grana and starch while 2PF from chlorophyll indicates the identity of grana.

We analyzed the polarization states of second harmonic generation (SHG) signals from starch granules and type I collagen through a four-channel photon counting based Stokes-polarimeter. The 2D SHG images of samples are reconstructed using various polarization parameters, such as the degree of polarization (DOP), the degree of linear polarization (DOLP), the degree of circular polarization (DOCP), as well as the anisotropy from the acquired Stokes parameters. Furthermore, we have demonstrated that the polarization parameters are changes at different input polarizations and focusing depths.

Temporal focusing (TF) nonlinear microscopy enables simultaneous illumination of relatively large areas while maintaining optical sectioning, by relying on the sensitivity of multiphoton processes to pulse duration. Line temporal focusing (LITEF) combines temporal focusing in one plane (xz) and spatial focusing in the perpendicular plane (yz). The additional spatial focusing improves optical sectioning compared to wide field temporal focusing and exhibits improved performance in scattering medium. Two photon microscopy’s ultimate depth of penetration is limited by out-of-focus excitation. This work explores whether LITEF can be used to address this limitation. Here, we present experimental results displaying the feasibility of ultra-deep penetration two-photon excitation in scattering media (<<1mm) using LITEF without significant distortions or out-of-focus-excitation. Our experimental setup is based on an amplified 800nm ultrafast laser where a dual-prism grating (DPG) is used as a diffractive element, allowing light to propagate on-axis throughout the optical setup, and providing a high diffraction efficiency. These results present new opportunities for ultra deep, optically sectioned 3D two photon imaging and stimulation within scattering biological tissue, beyond the known out-of-focus excitation limit.

Vocal fold scarring is one of the major causes of voice disorders and may arise from overuse or post-surgical wound healing. One promising treatment utilizes the injection of soft biomaterials aimed at restoring viscoelasticity of the outermost vibratory layer of the vocal fold, superficial lamina propria (SLP). However, the density of the tissue and the required injection pressure impair proper localization of the injected biomaterial in SLP. To enhance treatment effectiveness, we are investigating a technique to image and ablate sub-epithelial planar voids in vocal folds using ultrafast laser pulses to better localize the injected biomaterial. It is challenging to optimize the excitation wavelength to perform imaging and ablation at depths suitable for clinical use. Here, we compare maximum imaging depth using two photon autofluorescence and second harmonic generation with third-harmonic generation imaging modalities for healthy porcine vocal folds. We used a home-built inverted nonlinear scanning microscope together with a high repetition rate (2 MHz) ultrafast fiber laser (Raydiance Inc.). We acquired both two-photon autofluorescence and second harmonic generation signals using 776 nm wavelength and third harmonic generation signals using 1552 nm excitation wavelength. We observed that maximum imaging depth with 776 nm wavelength is significantly improved from 114 μm to 205 μm when third harmonic generation is employed using 1552 nm wavelength, without any observable damage in the tissue.

Combining the concept of structured illumination with two-photon microscopy, two-photon grid scanning pattern microscopy (TP-GPSM) was demonstrated to provide optical section power due to two-photon excitation and super-resolution in lateral through structured illumination. Based on a laser scanning geometry, the two-photon illumination patterns were effectively produced by temporally and spatially modulating the excitation light. Several possible ways to produce structured patterns were proposed in this paper. For image reconstruction, sufficient phase-stepped images were needed. With the 2-dimensional grid scanning pattern, ten images, including two orientations and five images with different phases in each orientation are required, and a 2-fold improvement in lateral resolution can be obtained. TP-GPSM was shown to have the potential for super-resolution imaging in thick tissues.

Psoriasis is an autoimmune disease of the skin characterized by hyperkeratosis, hyperproliferation of the epidermis, inflammatory cell accumulation and increased dilatation of dermal papillary blood vessels. Metabolic activity is increased in the epidermis and the dermis. Oxidative stress is high mainly due to reactive oxygen species (ROS) originating from the skin environment and cellular metabolism. We employed a custom multiphoton microscope coupled with a FLIM setup to image primary culture fibroblast cells from perilesional and lesional psoriatic skin in-vitro. Twophoton excited fluorescence images revealed the morphological differences between healthy and psoriatic fibroblasts. Based on the spectral analysis of the NADH and FAD components the oxidative stress was assessed and found to be higher in psoriatic cells. Furthermore the fluorescence lifetime properties were investigated with a TCSPC FLIM module. Mean fluorescence lifetime was found to be longer in psoriatic lesional cells. Analysis of the fast (τ₁) and slow (τ₂) decay lifetimes revealed a decrease of the ratio of the contribution of the fast (α₁) parameter to the contribution of the slow (α₂) parameter. The fluorescence in the examined part of the spectrum is attributed mainly to NADH. The decrease of the ratio (α₁)/ (α₂) is believed to correlate strongly with the anti-oxidant properties of NADH which can lead to the variation of its population in high ROS environment. This methodology could serve as an index of the oxidative status in cells and furthermore could be used to probe the oxidative stress of tissues in-vivo.

Multiphoton endoscopy can be applied for intra-corporeal imaging as well as to examine otherwise hard-to-access tissue areas like chronic wounds. Using high-NA (NA = 0.8) gradient-index (GRIN) lens-based endoscopes with a diameter of 1.4 mm and effective lengths of 7 mm and 20 mm, respectively, two-photon excitation of endogenous fluorophores and second-harmonic generation (SHG) is used for multimodal in vivo imaging of human skin. A further imaging modality is fluorescence lifetime imaging (FLIM) which allows functional imaging to investigate the healing mechanism of chronic wounds and the corresponding cell metabolism. We performed first in vivo measurements using FLIM endoscopy with the medically-certified multiphoton tomograph MPTflex^® in combination with a computer-controlled motorized scan head and a GRIN-lens endoscope.

Simultaneous imaging of cells expressing multiple fluorescent proteins (FPs) is of particular interest in applications such as mapping neural circuits, tracking multiple immune cell populations, etc. To visualize both in vivo and ex vivo tissue morphology and physiology at a cellular level deep within scattering tissues, two-photon fluorescence microscopy (2PM) is a powerful tool that has found wide applications. However, simultaneous imaging of multiple FPs with 2PM is greatly hampered by the lack of proper ultrafast lasers offering multi-color femtosecond pulses, each targeting the two-photon absorption peak of a different FP. Here we demonstrate simultaneous two-photon fluorescence excitation of RFP, YFP, and CFP in human melanoma cells engineered to express a “rainbow” pallet of colors, using a novel fiber-based source with energetic, three-color femtosecond pulses. The three-color pulses, centered at 775 nm, 864 nm and 950 nm, are obtained through second harmonic generation of the 1550 nm pump laser and SHG of the solitons at 1728 nm and 1900 nm generated through soliton self-frequency shift (SSFS) of the pump laser in a large-mode-area (LMA) fiber. The resulting wavelengths are well matched to the two-photon absorption peaks of the three FPs for efficient excitation. Our results demonstrate that multi-color femtosecond pulse generation using SSFS and a turn-key, fiber-based femtosecond laser can fulfill the requirements for simultaneous imaging of multiple FPs in 2PM, opening new opportunities for a wide range of biological applications where non-invasive, high-resolution imaging of multiple fluorescent indicators is required.

Spectral analysis of the autofluorescence images of isolated cardiac cells was performed to evaluate and to classify the metabolic state of the cells in respect to the responses to metabolic modulators. The classification was done using machine learning approach based on support vector machine with the set of the automatically calculated features from recorded spectral profile of spectral autofluorescence images. This classification method was compared with the classical approach where the individual spectral components contributing to cell autofluorescence were estimated by spectral analysis, namely by blind source separation using non-negative matrix factorization. Comparison of both methods showed that machine learning can effectively classify the spectrally resolved autofluorescence images without the need of detailed knowledge about the sources of autofluorescence and their spectral properties.

Three dimensional distributions of cells can be usually acquired by optical sectioning methods, such as multiphoton excitation and confocal fluorescence laser scanning microscopy. Though the lateral scan rates can reach up to several kHz, the relatively slow axial scan comprises the speed of real-time imaging of a volume. Here we propose a three dimensional imaging method that uses Bessel beams as excitation in multiphoton fluorescence microscopy. The extended focus of the Bessel beam allows recording a volume of cells without scanning the depth. The depth information can be retrieved by recording a pair of parallax views of the same volume. We have demonstrated the stereoscope capability on a homebuilt two-photon fluorescence microscope.

There is substantial evidence that focused ultrasound (FUS) in combination with microbubble contrast agent can cause disruption of the blood-brain barrier (BBB) to aid in drug delivery to the brain. We have previously demonstrated that FUS efficiently delivers antibodies against amyloid-β peptides (Aβ) through the BBB, leading to a reduction in amyloid pathology at 4 days in a mouse model of Alzheimer’s disease. In the current study, we used two-photon microscopy to characterize the effect of FUS in real time on amyloid pathology in the mouse brain. Mice were anesthetized and a cranial window was made in the skull. A custom-built ultrasound transducer was fixed to a coverslip and attached to the skull, covering the cranial window. Methoxy-X04 [2-5mg/kg] delivered intravenously 1 hr prior to the experiment clearly labelled the Aβ surrounding the vessels and the amyloid plaques in the cortex. Dextran conjugated Texas Red (70kDa) administered intravenously, confirmed BBB disruption. BBB disruption occurred in transgenic and non-transgenic animals at similar ultrasound pressures tested. However, the time required for BBB closure following FUS was longer in the Tg mice. We have conjugated Aβ antibodies to the fluorescent molecule FITC for real time monitoring of the antibody distribution in the brain. Our current experiments are aimed at optimizing the parameters to achieve maximal fluorescent intensity of the BAM10 antibody at the plaque surface. Two-photon microscopy has proven to be a valuable tool for evaluating the efficacy of FUS mediated drug delivery, including antibodies, to the Alzheimer brain.

We report on the characterization and use of a Multispot Multiphoton Microscope, to investigate calcium dy- namics at intracellular level. We apply this technique to obtain a time resolution of a few milliseconds, even in full frame images at 512x512 pixels, in order to get the most information on the evolution and propagation of ionic calcium waves across adjacent cells in an intact cardiac tissue. Further we report on the progress of development of a Random Access microscope for very high speed all optical electrophysiological signal acquisition in cell networks. Our study opens the way to the investigation of arrhythmogenic disease in animal models at cellular level.

Multiphoton microscopy (MPM) is a powerful technique for high resolution imaging of biological tissues. A specially-designed chirped photonic crystal fiber (CPCF) is introduced for MPM applications. The CPCF eliminates most pulse broadening effects in a broad transmission window because its cell-size radial chirp in the cladding structure localizes the reflection of different wavelengths in different resonant layers of the cladding, similar to chirped mirrors. In contrast, traditional hollow core fiber (HCF) consists of several identical reflective layers that produce substantial higher-order dispersion. The feasibility of applying the CPCF for MPM imaging is studied. The propagation properties of the CPCF are characterized by autocorrelation traces measured with and without the CPCF, which confirms an extremely low dispersion of the CPCF. The dispersion from other optics in the MPM imaging system is further compensated by a double-folded prism pair. In the autocorrelation trace measurement, satellite peaks are observed when the length of the CPCF is short (~40 cm), which disappear when the fiber length is chosen sufficiently long. The satellite peaks appear to originate from modal dispersion. With propagation lengths above 1 m, single mode propagation can be achieved in the CPCF. The extremely low dispersion of CPCF over a wide transmission window is promising in MPM applications for the fiber delivery of femtosecond pulses, especially in sub-20fs or tunable laser illumination.

Refractive index (RI) is the optical property of a medium that describes its ability to bend incident light. The corneal refractive index is an especially important measurement in corneal and intraocular refractive surgery where its precise estimation is necessary to obtain accurate surgical outcomes. In this study, we calculated the corneal RI using a combined multiphoton microscopy (MPM) and optical coherence tomography (OCT) system. MPM excites and detects nonlinear signals including two photon excitation fluorescence (TPEF) and second harmonic generation (SHG). TPEF signals are observed from NADH in the cytoplasm, allowing MPM to image the cellular structures in the corneal epithelium and endothelium. SHG signals are observed from collagen, an abundant connective tissue found in the stroma. Optical coherence tomography (OCT) produces cross-sectional, structural images based on the interference fringes created by the reflected light from the sample and reference arms. Our system uses a single sub-10 fs Ti: sapphire laser source which is good for both MPM excitation and OCT resolution. The MPM and OCT images are coregistered when they are taken successively because their axial resolutions are similar and the system shares the laser source and the scanning unit. We can calculate the RI by measuring the optical thickness and the optical path length of the cornea from the MPM and OCT images respectively. We have imaged and calculated the RI of murine and piscine corneas. We were able to see the epithelial, stromal, and endothelial layers and compare their relative thicknesses and the organization of the stromal collagen lamellae. Our results showed that our system can provide both functional and structural information about the cornea and measure the RI of multi-layered tissues.

To study immobilized protein interactions with dissolved substrates is a very important topic both from a fundamental and technological standpoint. In the present report we illustrate the preliminary results obtained on sol-gel immobilized glucose oxidase (GOD) using a standard de-scanned two-photon microscope based on a modified confocal scanhead with internal detectors and a Ti:sapphire laser as a source. Data acquisition conditions were preliminary defined using functionalized beads of different dimensions. Various sol-gel supports were then investigated by monitoring endogeneous fluorescence due to the flavoadenine (FAD) molecules, present in GOD. Linear absorption and fluorescence spectroscopy along with Fourier Transform Infrared microscopy were employed for a full-optical characterization of the samples. The results show that GOD immobilization processes can be successfully monitored in some cases and also the interaction with glucose could be studied by this approach. This assessment holds potentials to better understand the characteristic of immobilized enzymes biocatalysis and to develop new biosensing schemes.

Optical assessment of skin burns is possible with second-harmonic-generation (SHG) microscopy due to its high sensitivity to thermal denaturation of collagen molecules. In contrast to previous studies that were performed using excised tissue specimens ex vivo, in this study, we demonstrated in vivo observation of dermal collagen fibers in living rat burn models with SHG microscopy. We confirmed that changes in SHG vanishing patterns in the SHG images depended on the burn degree. The results imply that SHG microscopy can be used as a low-invasiveness, highly quantitative tool for skin burn assessment.

Polarization-resolved second-harmonic-generation (SHG) microscopy is a powerful tool to visualize distribution of collagen fiber orientation in tissue with little invasion. However, long image acquisition time, resulting from mechanical rotation of a half-wave plate, makes this microscopy easy to suffer from motion artifact of a sample and hence has limited its use to in vivo application. In this paper, we constructed rapid, polarization-resolved SHG microscopy by combination of an electro-optics-modulator-based polarization modulation with improved data acquisition method. The constructed polarization-resolved SHG microscopy enables us to visualize orientation mapping of dermal collagen fiber in rat skin and human one in vivo without influence of motion artifact. This microscope will open the door for in vivo measurement of collagen fiber orientation in human skin.

We present here a stimulated emission based fluorescence lifetime imaging (FLIM) scheme using a pair of synchronized diode lasers operating at gain switched pulse mode. The two semiconductor lasers, with wavelengths at 635 nm and 700 nm, serve as the excitation and the stimulation light sources for the ATTO647N labeled sample, respectively. FLIM is readily achieved with their relative time delay controlled electronically. The coherent nature of the stimulated emission signal also allows FLIM at long working distance. In this way, a high performance all-semiconductor FLIM module is realized in a flexible, compact, and cost effective configuration.

This PDF file contains the front matter associated with SPIE Proceedings Volume 8588, including the Title Page, Copyright Information, Table of Contents, and the Conference Committee listing.