This PDF file contains the front matter associated with SPIE Proceedings Volume 8900, including the Title Page, Copyright Information, Table of Contents, and the Conference Committee listing.

A 24GHz reflect-array based people screening system is described. Some of the considerations behind the design decisions are discussed. The details of the binary approximation to phase programming are given and supported with experimental results. The benefit of a non-cubic scan pattern is discussed. A single frame image showing resolution capability is presented.

Armed forces nowadays have to cope with a wide variety of mission scenarios in military or peace keeping operations. In urban environments, for example, convoy commanders are confronted with a very complex threat situation, due to so called IEDs (Improvised explosive devices) or landmines. The detection of threats due to advanced reconnaissance sensors will provide an important advantage. The aim of the SUM project (Surveillance in an urban environment using mobile sensors) was to develop a cost-effective multi-sensor vehicle based surveillance system in order to enhance the knowledge of the actual threat situation on and nearby the road ahead of the convoy. The SUMIRAD (SUM imaging radiometer) system, developed by DLR, is a fast radiometric imager and part of the SUM sensor suite. This paper will describe the challenges for the design of the SUMIRAD system and the image processing features in order to provide high-quality images of sufficient resolution for a large field of view at a moderate frame rate. Imaging results of several measurement campaigns will be presented.

The unique selling proposition of millimetre wave technology for security screening is that it provides a stand-off or portal scenario sensing capability for non-metallic threats. The capabilities to detect some non-metallic threats are investigated in this paper, whilst recommissioning the AVSEC portal screening system at the Manchester Metropolitan University. The AVSEC system is a large aperture (1.6 m) portal screening imager which uses spatially incoherent illumination at 28-33 GHz from mode scrambling cavities to illuminate the subject. The imaging capability is critically analysed in terms of this illumination. A novel technique for the measurement of reflectance, refractive index and extinction coefficient is investigated and this then use to characterise the signatures of nitromethane, hexane, methanol, bees wax and baking flour. Millimetre wave images are shown how these liquids in polycarbonate bottles and the other materials appear against the human body.

The feasibility of screening hand luggage for concealed threat items such as Person-Borne Improvised Explosive Devices (PBIED's) both metallic and non-metallic, together with handguns and at millimetre wavelengths is investigated. Previous studies by the authors and others indicate that hand baggage material and fabric is much more transmissive and has less scattering at lower millimetre wave frequencies and the ability to use K-band active imaging with high spatial resolution presents an opportunity to image and hence recognise concealed threats. For this feasibility study, a 1.6 m aperture, 35 GHz security screening imaging system with a spatial resolution of 2.5 cm and a depth of field of around 5 cm is employed, using spatially incoherent illuminating panels to enhance image contrast. In this study, realistic scenarios using backpacks containing a realistic range of threat and non-threat items are scanned, both carried and standalone. This range of items contains large vessels suitable for containing simulated home-made PBIED’s and handguns. The comprehensive list of non-threat items includes laptops, bottles, clothing and power supplies. For this study, the range at which imaging data at standoff distances can be acquired is confined to that of the particular system in use, although parameters such as illumination and integration time are optimised. However, techniques for extrapolating towards effective standoff distances using aperture synthesis imagers are discussed. The transmission loss through fabrics and clothing that may form, or be contained in baggage, are reported over range of frequencies ranging from 26 to 110 GHz.

The essential technical aspects of Passive Millimeter Wave Imaging have been known for nearly a century, but widespread implementation did not occur until inexpensive millimeter wave amplifiers appeared in the 1990. This paper takes a look at the early work that has led to today's successful PMMW products, as well as some of the failed technologies that seem to be revisited over and over again.

At airport security checkpoints, authorities are demanding improved personnel screening devices for increased security. Active mm-wave imaging systems deliver the high quality images needed for reliable automatic detection of hidden threats. As mm-wave imaging systems assume static scenarios, motion effects caused by movement of persons during the screening procedure can degrade image quality, so very short measurement time is required. Multistatic imaging array designs and fully electronic scanning in combination with digital beamforming offer short measurement time together with high resolution and high image dynamic range, which are critical parameters for imaging systems used for passenger screening. In this paper, operational principles of such systems are explained, and the performance of the imaging systems with respect to motion within the scenarios is demonstrated using mm-wave images of different test objects and standing as well as moving persons. Electronic microwave imaging systems using multistatic sparse arrays are suitable for next generation screening systems, which will support on the move screening of passengers.

The operational concept and results of tests are presented for a prototype W-band passive imaging system based on a planar diffraction antenna. A multi-beam (64 beams) rotating antenna pattern is formed due to the dispersive properties of the antenna and by rotating the antenna around the viewing axis by means of a low power electromechanical drive. The operational frequency bandwidth of 16 GHz is split into 64 sub-bands, one for each ‘beam’. Image formation at short distances, ~ several meters, is possible with the addition of a static lens in front of the rotating antenna unit; far field imaging is also possible without an additional lens. Technical parameters and imaging results from the prototype unit are discussed.

Terahertz is a field in constant expansion. Multiple applications are foreseen including see-through imaging. To develop deployable systems, real-time two-dimensional cameras are needed rather than monopixel detectors or linear arrays that require mechanical scanning systems. INO has recently developed a real-time (video rate) 384x288 THz camera exhibiting excellent sensitivity and low noise levels. The core of the THz imager is the 35 μm pitch detector array that is based on INO’s uncooled VOx microbolometer technology and fabricated in INO’s clean room. A standard ceramic package is used for final packaging. The detector FPA is finally sealed with a high resistivity float zone silicon (HRFZ-Si) window having an anti-reflective coating consisting of thick Parylene, which the thickness of which depends on the required optimization wavelength. The FPA is mounted on an INO IRXCAM core giving a passive THz camera assembly. The additional THz objective consists of a refractive 44 mm focal length F/1 THz lens. In this paper, a review of the characteristics of the THz camera at is performed. The sensitivity of the camera at various THz wavelengths is presented along with examples of the resolution obtained with the IRXCAM-384-THz camera core. See-through imaging results are also presented.

At airports, security screening can cause long delays. In order to speed up screening a solution to avoid passengers removing their shoes to have them X-ray scanned is required. To detect threats or contraband items hidden within the shoe, a method of screening using frequency swept signals between 15 to 40 GHz has been developed, where the scan is carried out whilst the shoes are being worn. Most footwear is transparent to microwaves to some extent in this band. The scans, data processing and interpretation of the 2D image of the cross section of the shoe are completed in a few seconds. Using safe low power UWB radar, scattered signals from the shoe can be observed which are caused by changes in material properties such as cavities, dielectric or metal objects concealed within the shoe. By moving the transmission horn along the length of the shoe a 2D image corresponding to a cross section through the footwear is built up, which can be interpreted by the user, or automatically, to reveal the presence of concealed threat within the shoe. A prototype system with a resolution of 6 mm or less has been developed and results obtained for a wide range of commonly worn footwear, some modified by the inclusion of concealed material. Clear differences between the measured images of modified and unmodified shoes are seen. Procedures for enhancing the image through electronic image synthesis techniques and image processing methods are discussed and preliminary performance data presented.

Target decomposition is of interest to the security and defence community as it enables data sets to be reduced to their principal identifying components as a pre-processor to running pattern recognition algorithms. An investigation into the application of target decomposition theory for concealed threat detection is presented. A validation study has been conducted in which the scattering of an EM wave by a number of primitive radar calibration targets has been simulated using an EM FEA solver. A knife has then been illuminated with quad polar radar again in a simulation conducted using an EM FEA solver. The validation of the target decomposition algorithm is achieved by analysing the calibration targets with well-known scattering mechanisms. The decomposition of more complex targets such as those encountered in Concealed Threat Detection (CTD) scenarios are then analysed. The decomposition is performed as prescribed by Cloude et al and the scattering of the illuminating wave due to the target is mapped onto a 3D space detailing polarimetric entropy (H), anisotropy (A) and alpha-angle (α). The decomposition of these complex scattering mechanisms is then used to classify the data. Both theoretical and simulated data sets are used to validate this technique.

Passive microwave (MW) remote sensing is used in Earth observation missions for example to estimate the salinity of oceans or the soil moisture of landscapes. In these cases the absolute brightness temperature numbers are important for sufficient accuracy of the estimated geo-physical parameters. Consequently a suitable system calibration network is required. At DLR a radiometric demonstrator for fully-electronic MW imaging was set up at Ka-band, which is based on a combination of beam steering by frequency shift using a broadband slotted-waveguide antenna for one scanning direction, and the application of aperture synthesis for the other direction. Aperture synthesis is well known from radio astronomy, but it is still a new imaging principle for Earth observation or security applications. Hence as well new calibration techniques have to be developed for this kind of scanning mechanism. In this paper a novel approach for a noise-source based calibration method taking into account the antenna losses will be introduced. When using aperture synthesis techniques to determine the absolute brightness temperature values, it is very important, among other things, to know the exact phase transfer function of the system in order to achieve the desired radiometric resolution. Consequently our approach enables phase calibration as well. The paper outlines a proof of concept for this calibration method using a two-element interferometer called VESAS (Voll Elektronischer Scanner mit AperturSynthese) as a demonstrator. The functionality of the demonstrator and the proof of concept of the imaging principle mentioned before are written in detail in [1].

Terahertz imaging, is the latest entry into the crowded field of imaging technologies. Many applications are emerging for the relatively new technology. THz radiation penetrates deep into nonpolar and nonmetallic materials such as paper, plastic, clothes, wood, and ceramics that are usually opaque at optical wavelengths. The T-rays have large potential in the field of hidden objects detection because it is not harmful to humans. The main difficulty in the THz imaging systems is low image quality thus it is justified to combine THz images with the high-resolution images from a visible camera. An imaging system is usually composed of various subsystems. Many of the imaging systems use imaging devices working in various spectral ranges. Our goal is to build a system harmless to humans for screening and detection of hidden objects using a THz and VIS cameras.

Among the security problems, the detection of object implanted into either the human body or animal body is the urgent problem. At the present time the main tool for the detection of such object is X-raying only. However, X-ray is the ionized radiation and therefore can not be used often. Other way for the problem solving is passive THz imaging using. In our opinion, using of the passive THz camera may help to detect the object implanted into the human body under certain conditions. The physical reason of such possibility arises from temperature trace on the human skin as a result of the difference in temperature between object and parts of human body. Modern passive THz cameras have not enough resolution in temperature to see this difference. That is why, we use computer processing to enhance the passive THz camera resolution for this application. After computer processing of images captured by passive THz camera TS4, developed by ThruVision Systems Ltd., we may see the pronounced temperature trace on the human body skin from the water, which is drunk by person, or other food eaten by person. Nevertheless, there are many difficulties on the way of full soution of this problem. We illustrate also an improvement of quality of the image captured by comercially available passive THz cameras using computer processing. In some cases, one can fully supress a noise on the image without loss of its quality. Using computer processing of the THz image of objects concealed on the human body, one may improve it many times. Consequently, the instrumental resolution of such device may be increased without any additional engineering efforts.

This article contains information about using terahertz time-domain spectroscopy for the security industry, particularly for distinguishing chosen different kinds of gunpowder. The original focus of described research was the observation of characteristic spectrum of gunpowder (spectral fingerprint) in the terahertz range of the electromagnetic spectrum to use the terahertz radiation for gunpowder detection and identification. The results of this research lead to the finding that researched samples of gunpowder do not have any characteristic spectral lines or peaks in the terahertz range of the electromagnetic spectrum up to 2 THz. However, the comparison of samples of different kinds of gunpowder proves the possibility of their distinguishing by their absorbance (absorption spectrum). Introduction information about motivation of authors, methods of measurement, samples preparation, results of measurements with their interpretation and discussion about the results with conclusion are the main parts of this article.

Letter bombs are an increasing problem for public authorities, companies and public persons. Nowadays every big company uses in his headquarters inspection system to check the incoming correspondence. Generally x-ray systems are used to inspect complete baskets or bags of letters. This concept which works very fine in big company with a large postal center is not usable for small companies or private persons. For an office environment with a small number of letters x-ray systems are too expensive and oversized. X-ray systems visualize the wires and electric circuits inside the envelope. If a letter contains no metallic components but hazard materials or drugs, the dangerous content is invisible for the most low-cost x-ray systems. Millimeter wave imagining systems offer the potential to close this gap.

This paper investigates by simulation some of the capabilities of near-field and three-dimensional imaging which are made possible by accessing phase and amplitude of electric fields from radiometric emission using aperture synthesis systems. The aperture synthesis technique is the main stay of high resolution radio astronomy and is investigated here for the near-field application of personnel security screening in the millimetre wave band. The limitations of the standard radio astronomy visibility-function technique and a matrix method for image generation are investigated for this purpose. It is concluded that several hundred receivers are required for high pixel count (> few thousand) and good quality images and that a new and more efficient algorithms is required to process such numbers of channels from non-planar imaging arrays in the near-field. Investigating the resolution limits of three-dimensional imaging in the near-field region with this technique indicates sub-wavelength resolution may be possible

Electromagnetic systems for imaging concealed objects at checkpoints typically employ radiation at millimetre and terahertz frequencies. These systems have been shown to be effective and provide a sufficiently high resolution image. However there are difficulties and current electromagnetic systems have limitations particularly in accurately differentiating between threat and innocuous objects based on shape, surface emissivity or reflectivity, which are indicative parameters. In addition, water has a high absorption coefficient at millimetre wavelength and terahertz frequencies, which makes it more difficult for these frequencies to image through thick damp clothing. This paper considers the potential of using ultra wideband (UWB) in the low gigahertz range. The application of this frequency band to security screening appears to be a relatively new field. The business case for implementing the UWB system has been made financially viable by the recent availability of low-cost integrated circuits operating at these frequencies. Although designed for the communication sector, these devices can perform the required UWB radar measurements as well. This paper reports the implementation of a 2 to 5 GHz bandwidth linear array scanner. The paper describes the design and fabrication of transmitter and receiver antenna arrays whose individual elements are a type of antipodal Vivaldi antenna. The antenna’s frequency and angular response were simulated in CST Microwave Studio and compared with laboratory measurements. The data pre-processing methods of background subtraction and deconvolution are implemented to improve the image quality. The background subtraction method uses a reference dataset to remove antenna crosstalk and room reflections from the dataset. The deconvolution method uses a Wiener filter to “sharpen” the returned echoes which improves the resolution of the reconstructed image. The filter uses an impulse response reference dataset and a signal-to-noise parameter to determine how the frequencies contained in the echo dataset are normalised. The chosen image reconstruction algorithm is based on the back-projection method. The algorithm was implemented in MATLAB and uses a pre-calculated sensitivity matrix to increase the computation speed. The results include both 2D and 3D image datasets. The 3D datasets were obtained by scanning the dual sixteen element linear antenna array over the test object. The system has been tested on both humans and mannequin test objects. The front surface of an object placed on the human/mannequin torso is clearly visible, but its presence is also seen from a tell-tale imaging characteristic. This characteristic is caused by a reduction in the wave velocity as the electromagnetic radiation passes through the object, and manifests as an indentation in the reconstructed image that is readily identifiable. The prototype system has been shown to easily detect a 12 mm x 30 mm x70 mm plastic object concealed under clothing.

In the paper a frequency modulated THz system is presented. The system is constructed with a solid state THz source and is modulated approx. ±10% of central frequency of 0.3THz. The detector is room temperature sensor array with a square low characteristic allowing a mixer operation between a portion of transmitted signal from the beam splitter and the received signal. Due to this heterodyne approach a very good signal to noise ratio has been achieved, allowing accurate and repeatable signal analysis. The phase of the received signal is very stable and can be used for fine position measurements with the resolution well below 1μm. In this paper the focus is on measurements of thin foil thickness. Various experiments set-ups and measured results are presented.

We report on Terahertz (THz) detectors based on III-V high-electron-mobility field-effect transistors (FET). The detection results from a rectification process that is still highly efficient far above frequencies where the transistor provides gain. Several detector layouts have been optimized for specific applications at room temperature: we show a broadband detector layout, where the rectifying FET is coupled to a broadband logarithmic-periodic antenna. Another layout is optimized for mixing of two orthogonal THz beams at 370 GHz or, alternatively, 570 GHz. A third version uses a large array of FETs with very low access resistance allowing for detection of very short high-power THz pulses. We reached a time resolution of 20 ps.

In this paper we present the fabrication and the initial characterization of a new type of coaxial cable having reduced leakage characteristics and the capability of transmitting optical signals, in additional to the RF signal, through the glass medium between the metallic conductors. The suggested decreased leakage and material loss is obtained by using different metallic shield geometry. The suggested model is composed of a central conductor surrounded by plurality of metallic wires circularly disposed.

A growing interest in terahertz technology finds support in a large number of applications. One of the most interesting applications of terahertz waves is imaging. The terahertz range of electromagnetic radiation has large potential in the field of hidden objects detection because it is not harmful to humans [1, 2]. However, the main difficulty in the THz imaging systems is low image quality due to low sensitivity and a small number of pixels in detecting modules of cameras Considering the fact that even THz images with low pixel resolution still provide valuable information, it is justified to combine them with the high-resolution images from a visible camera. Image fusion can be used in a wide range of security applications for example detection and identification of hidden objects. Our goal is to build a system harmless to humans for screening and detection of hidden objects using a THz camera. A very important aspect of applying various processing techniques to images is proper assessment of image quality. We propose a combination of two image quality assessment methods (IQA) as a methodology of assessing quality of the fused images and a method to compare image fusion algorithms.

We report on technical aspects connected with detection of the terahertz (THz) waves reflected from a small target which is situated at the distance of 5 meters. Details of experimental setup are presented. An optical parametric oscillator (OPO) was used as a THz nanosecond pulses radiation source and a hot-electron bolometer (HEB) was applied for pulse detection. A method of spectrum calculation from experimental data is described. Measured reflectance spectra of few materials are presented with explanation of the origin of water vapor hole burning in the reflectance spectrum.

Following the development of efficient THz devices operating at 1550 nm based on low temperature (LT) grown semiconductor compounds, the effect of the substrate of such devices in the generated THz radiation is investigated, a new compact, portable and reconfigurable fiber based THz spectrometer is built and a pair of THz devices are evaluated in the spectrometer. The key findings are firstly the transparency of the InP substrate to THz radiation, which implies that the generated THz signal from these devices is not affected by the substrate, and secondly the development of a THz spectrometer at 1550 nm laser excitation, which can be used for high quality measurements for various material sensing and characterization applications.