This PDF file contains the front matter associated with SPIE Proceedings Volume 9563, including the Title Page, Copyright information, Table of Contents, Authors, Introduction, and Conference Committee listing.

Photovoltaic (PV) modules, operate at high voltages and elevated temperatures, and are known to degrade because of leakage current to ground. Related degradation processes may include: electric/ionic corrosion, electrochemical deposition, electromigration, and/or charge build-up in thin layers. The use of polymeric materials with a high resistivity is known to reduce the rate of potential induced degradation processes. Because of this, PV materials suppliers are placing increased importance on the encapsulant bulk resistivity, but there is no universally accepted method for making this measurement. The development of a resistivity test standard is described in this paper. We have performed a number of exploratory and round-robin tests to establish a representative and reproducible method for determining the bulk resistivity of polymeric materials, including encapsulation, backsheet, edge seals, and adhesives. The duration of measurement has been shown to greatly affect the results, e.g., an increase as great as 100X was seen for different measurement times. The standard has been developed using measurements alternating between an "on" and "off" voltage state with a weighted averaging function and cycle times of an hour.

Matching accelerated test results to field observations is an important objective in the photovoltaic industry. We continue to develop test methods to strengthen correlations. We have previously reported good correlation of FTIR spectra between accelerated tests and field measurements. The availability of portable FTIR spectrometers has made measurement in the field convenient and reliable. Recently, nano-indentation has shown promise to correlate changes in backsheet mechanical properties. A precisely shaped stylus is pressed into a sample, load vs displacement recorded and mechanical properties of interest calculated in a nondestructive test. This test can be done on full size modules, allowing area variations in mechanical properties to be recorded. Finally, we will discuss optical profilometry. In this technique a white light interferogram of a surface is Fourier transformed to produce a three-dimensional image. Height differences from 1 nm to 5 mm can be detected over an area of a few cm. This technique can be used on minimodules, and is useful to determine crack and defect dimensions. Results will be presented correlating accelerated tests with fielded modules covering spectroscopic, mechanical, and morphological changes.

The channel crack and delamination phenomena that occurred during tensile tests were utilized to study surface cracking and delamination properties of a multilayered backsheet. A model sample of commercial PPE (polyethylene terephthalate (PET)/PET/ethylene vinyl acetate (EVA)) backsheet was studied. Fragmentation testing was performed after accelerated aging with and without ultraviolet (UV) irradiation in two relative humidity (RH) levels (5 % RH and 60 % RH) at elevated temperature (85 °C) conditions for 11 days and 22 days. Results suggest that the embrittled surface layer resulting from the UV photo-degradation is responsible for surface cracking when the strain applied on the sample is far below the yielding strain (2.2 %) of the PPE sample. There was no surface cracking observed on the un-aged sample and samples aged without UV irradiation. According to the fragmentation testing results, the calculated fracture toughness (K_IC) values of the embrittled surface layer are as low as 0.027 MPa·m^1/2 to 0.104 MPa·m^1/2, depending on the humidity levels and aging times. Surface analysis using attenuated total reflectance Fourier transform infrared and atomic force microscopy shows the degradation mechanism of the embrittled surface layer is a combination of the photodegradation within a certain degradation depth and the moisture erosion effect depending on the moisture levels. Specifically, UV irradiation provides a chemical degradation effect while moisture plays a synergistic effect on surface erosion, which influences surface roughness after aging. Finally, there was no delamination observed during tensile testing in this study, suggesting the surface cracking problem is more significant than the delamination for the PPE backsheet material and conditions tested here.

Polymeric multilayer backsheets protect the photovoltaic modules from damage of moisture and ultraviolet (UV) while providing electrical insulation. Due to the multilayer structures, the properties of the inner layers of the backsheets, including their interfaces, during weathering are not well known. In this study, a commercial type of PPE (polyethylene terephthalate (PET)/PET/ethylene vinyl acetate (EVA)) backsheet films was selected as a model system for a depth profiling study of mechanical properties of a backsheet film during UV exposure. The NIST SPHERE (Simulated Photodegradation via High Energy Radiant Exposure) was used for the accelerated laboratory exposure of the materials with UV at 85°C and two relative humidities (RH) of 5 % (dry) and 60 % (humid). Cryomicrotomy was used to obtain cross-sectional PPE samples. Mechanical depth profiling of the cross-sections of aged and unaged samples was conducted by nanoindentation, and a peak-force based quantitative nanomechanical atomic force microscopy (QNM-AFM) mapping techniquewas used to investigate the microstructure and adhesion properties of the adhesive tie layers. The nanoindentation results show the stiffening of the elastic modulus in the PET outer and pigmented EVA layers. From QNM-AFM, the microstructures and adhesion properties of the adhesive layers between PET outer and core layers and between PET core and EVA inner layers are revealed and found to degrade significantly after aging under humidity environment. The results from mechanical depth profiling of the PPE backsheet are further related to the previous chemical depth profiling of the same material, providing new insights into the effects of accelerated UV and humidity on the degradation of multilayer backsheet.

Current injected damp heat (CDH) test have been reported to accelerate certain type of long-term degradation observed in at least one prototype flexible thin film silicon photovoltaic (PV) modules deployed in field [1]. This report have raised a question that whether conventional DH tests should be combined with current injection or light illumination to better reproduce long-time degradations of flexible thin film modules. To answer this question, we have been testing multiple flexible products available in the market, as part of the activities of Japanese Task Group 8 of the International PV Quality Assurance Task Force (PVQAT) [2]. Here, we present some results of our damp (or dry) heat testing with light illumination on a flexible CIGS module product with relatively poor moisture barriers.

An investigation of microindenter-induced crack evolution with independent variation of both temperature and relative humidity has been pursued in PV-grade Si wafers. Under static tensile strain conditions, an increase in subcritical crack elongation with increasing atmospheric water content was observed. To provide further insight into the potential physical and chemical conditions at the microcrack tip, micro-Raman measurements were performed. Preliminary results confirm a spatial variation in the frequency of the primary Si vibrational resonance within the cracktip region, associated with local stress state, whose magnitude is influenced by environmental conditions during the period of applied static strain. The experimental effort was paired with molecular dynamics (MD) investigations of microcrack evolution in single-crystal Si to furnish additional insight into mechanical contributions to crack elongation. The MD results demonstrate that crack-tip energetics and associated crack elongation velocity and morphology are intimately related to the crack and applied strain orientations with respect to the principal crystallographic axes. The resulting elastic strain energy release rate and the stress-strain response of the Si under these conditions form the basis for preliminary micro-scale peridynamics (PD) simulations of microcrack development under constant applied strain. These efforts will be integrated with the experimental results to further inform the mechanisms contributing to this important degradation mode in Si-based photovoltaics.

Lifecycle degradation testing of photovoltaic (PV) modules in accelerated-degradation chambers can enable the prediction both of PV performance lifetimes and of return-on-investment for installations of PV systems. With degradation results strongly dependent on chamber test parameters, the validity of such studies relative to fielded, installed PV systems must be determined. In the present work, accelerated aging of a 250 W polycrystalline silicon module is compared to real-time performance degradation in a similar polycrystalline-silicon, fielded, PV technology that has been operating since October 2013. Investigation of environmental aging effects are performed in a full-scale, industrial-standard environmental chamber equipped with single-sun irradiance capability providing illumination uniformity of 98% over a 2 x 1.6 m area. Time-dependent, photovoltaic performance (J-V) is evaluated over a recurring, compressed night-day cycle providing representative local daily solar insolation for the southwestern United States, followed by dark (night) cycling. This cycle is synchronized with thermal and humidity environmental variations that are designed to mimic, as closely as possible, test-yard conditions specific to a 12 month weather profile for a fielded system in Tucson, AZ. Results confirm the impact of environmental conditions on the module long-term performance. While the effects of temperature de-rating can be clearly seen in the data, removal of these effects enables the clear interpretation of module efficiency degradation with time and environmental exposure. With the temperature-dependent effect removed, the normalized efficiency is computed and compared to performance results from another panel of similar technology that has previously experienced identical climate changes in the test yard. Analysis of relative PV module efficiency degradation for the chamber-tested system shows good comparison to the field-tested system with ~2.5% degradation following an equivalent year of testing.

Although the main root causes and referring counter measures for PID are known, a significant part of the industrial modules are still found to be PID sensitive in testing and PID is increasingly evident in field. This paper discusses field occurrence of PID with respect to environmental conditions and material properties. Different PID pattern in field and in test are analyzed in terms of the potential distribution and surface conductivity. Examples are given for the correlation of PID lab tests of a (commercial) BOM with real outdoor degradation. PID progress is predicted for different locations and compared with measurement data. Suitable quality control measures are discussed for the modules as well as for the encapsulation material

CdTe and CIGS type modules were tested for potential-­‐induced degradation with positive and negative 1,000 V bias applied to the active cell circuit in an 85°C, 85% relative humidity environmental chamber. Both CdTe module types tested exhibited degradation under negative bias. I-­‐V curve data indicated the first module type was affected sequentially by shunting followed by a recovery and then by series resistance losses; the second was affected by recombination losses. The first type showed transparent conductive oxide delamination from the glass after about 750 h of stress testing in the environmental chamber and exhibited power degradation within five weeks in field tests with -­‐1,000 V system voltage. Performance of CIGS modules differed depending on the technology generation. Under negative bias, the older module design showed an initial 12% (relative) improvement, possibly because of the influx of sodium ions that has been reported to benefit the electrical properties, followed by severe degradation with continued stress testing. The newer design CIGS module exhibited the best stability of the four thin-­‐film module types tested with a total loss of 9.5 % (relative) power drop after 3,100 h of test with negative voltage bias, but not clearly by system voltage stress effects considering similar behavior by a sister module in-­‐chamber in open-­‐circuit condition. Relative rates of current leakage-­‐to-­‐ground between chamber tests and modules placed outdoors under system voltage stress are compared to extrapolate anticipated coulombs transferred for given extents of degradation of the module power. This analysis correctly placed which module type failed in the field first, but overestimated the time to failure. The performance of modules at 85°C with dark current I_mp applied through the cell circuit are discussed with respect to stand-­‐alone fielded modules biased to near their maximum power point with load resistors.

Major sources of performance degradation and failure in glass-encapsulated PV modules include moisture-induced gridline corrosion, potential-induced degradation (PID) of the cell, and stress-induced busbar delamination. Recent studies have shown that PV modules operating in damp heat at -600 V are vulnerable to large amounts of degradation, potentially up to 90% of the original power output within 200 hours. To improve module reliability and restore power production in the presence of PID and other failure mechanisms, a fundamental rethinking of accelerated testing is needed. This in turn will require an improved understanding of technology choices made early in development that impact failures later.

In this work, we present an integrated approach of modeling, characterization, and validation to address these problems. A hierarchical modeling framework will allows us to clarify the mechanisms of corrosion, PID, and delamination. We will employ a physics-based compact model of the cell, topology of the electrode interconnection, geometry of the packaging stack, and environmental operating conditions to predict the current, voltage, temperature, and stress distributions in PV modules correlated with the acceleration of specific degradation modes. A self-consistent solution will capture the essential complexity of the technology-specific acceleration of PID and other degradation mechanisms as a function of illumination, ambient temperature, and relative humidity. Initial results from our model include specific lifetime predictions suitable for direct comparison with indoor and outdoor experiments, which are qualitatively validated by prior work. This approach could play a significant role in developing novel accelerated lifetime tests.

PV rooftop system can generally be installed to produce electricity for the domestic house, office, small enterprise as well as factory. Such a system has direct useful for reducing peak load, meanwhile it also provides shaded area on the roof and hence the heat gain into the building is reduced. This study aims to investigate the shading effect on reduction of heat transfer into the building. The 49 kWp of PV rooftop system has been installed on the deck of the office building located in the middle of Thailand where the latitude of 14 ° above the equator. The estimation of heat gain into the building due to the solar irradiation throughout a day for one year has been carried out, before and after the installation of the PV rooftop system. Then the Newton’s law of cooling is applied to calculate the heat gain. The calculation and the measurement of the heat reduction are compared. Finally, the indirect benefit of the PV rooftop system installed is evaluated in terms of power value.

Partial shade of monolithic thin-film PV modules can cause reverse-bias conditions leading to permanent damage. In this work, we introduce a partial shade stress test for thin-film PV modules that quantifies permanent performance loss. The test reproduces shading and loading conditions that may occur in the field. It accounts for reversible light-induced performance changes and for the effects of light-enhanced reverse breakdown. We simulated the test procedure using a computer model that predicts the local voltage, current and temperature stress resulting from partial shade. We also performed the test on three commercial module types. Each module type we tested suffered permanent damage during masked ash testing totaling < 2 s of light exposure. During the subsequent stress test these module types lost 4%{11% in Pmp due to widespread formation of new shunts. One module type showed a substantial worsening of the Pmp loss upon light stabilization, underscoring the importance of this practice for proper quantification of damage.

The PV applications in Thailand are now installed more than 1.2 GWp cumulatively. It is due to the National Renewable Energy Program and its targets. In the latest Alternative Energy Development Plan (AEDP), the PV electricity production target has increased from 2 GWp to 3 GWp. With this rapid growth, customers and manufacturers seek for module standard testing. So far over one thousands of PV modules per annum have been tested since 2012. The normal tests include type approval test according to TIS standard, acceptance test and testing for local standard development. For type test, the most module failure was found during damp heat test. For annual evaluation test, the power degradation and delamination of power was found between 0 to 6 percent from its nameplate after deployment of 0 to 5 years in the field. For thin-film module, the degradation and delamination was found in range of 0 to 13 percent (about 5 percent on average) from its nameplate for the modules in operation with less than 5 years. However, for the PV modules at the reference site on campus operated for 12 years, the power degradation was ranging from 10 to 15 percent. Therefore, a long term performance assessment needs to be considered to ensure the system reliability.

CIGS solar cells and non-covered molybdenum areas and scribes were exposed to liquid water purged with the atmospheric gases carbon dioxide (CO₂), oxygen (O₂), nitrogen (N₂) and air in order to investigate their degradation behavior. The samples were analyzed by electrical, compositional and optical measurements before, during and after exposure in order to follow the degradation behavior of these samples as a function of time.

The CIGS solar cells showed a rapid decrease in conversion efficiency when exposed to water purged with a combination of CO₂ and N₂ as well as to water purged with air, while their efficiency was slowly reduced in unpurged water and water purged with N₂ or O₂. Cross-section SEM showed that the exposure of samples to H₂O with large concentrations of CO₂ led to the dissolution of the ZnO:Al layer, likely starting from the grain boundaries. Preliminary studies showed that molybdenum films and scribes degraded in the combined presence of H₂O and O₂, while they were stable in the presence of H₂O combined with N₂ or CO₂. Degradation was the most severe on positions where the molybdenum was mechanically damaged and the MoSe₂ film was removed before exposure, for example in the middle of the P3 scribe. Exposure to H₂O and O₂ led to the disappearance of the metallic molybdenum, leaving behind an insoluble red brown material, which is likely a molybdenum oxide such as MoO₂.

Triple junction hydrogenated amorphous silicon (a-Si:H) have shown exceptionally good reliability and durability. Cadmium telluride, CdTe PV modules have shown the lowest production cost without subsidies. Copper-indium gallium selenide sulfide (CIGS) and cadmium telluride (CdTe) cells and modules have been showing efficiencies equal or greater than those of multi-crystalline, (mx-Si), PV modules. Early generation CIGS and CdTe PV modules had a different qualification standard 61646 as compared to 61215 for crystalline silicon, (c-Si), PV modules. This, together with small vulnerability in harsh climates, was used to create doubts about their reliability. Recently CdTe and CIGS glass-to-glass modules have passed the rigorous accelerated tests, especially as long as the edge seals are not compromised. Moreover, the cumulative shipment of these modules is more than 12 GW demonstrating the customer confidence in these products. Hence it can be stated that also in terms of the reliability and durability all the thin film PV modules stand tall and compare favorably with mx-Si.

Photovoltaic module qualifications tests such as IEC 61215 and 61646 help in minimizing infant mortality. However, they do not guarantee useful lifetime over the warranty period. Highly accelerated stress testing (HAST) can be useful in exposing design and component weaknesses and consequently increasing the margin of the design. However, they do not duplicate the conditions experienced by the module and hence cannot be used for assuring the desired useful lifetime. Other attempts were concentrated on extending the existing tests such as damp heat test of 1000 hours at 85 0C and 85% RH. However, even though extending the test to 1250 hours may detect flaws that may occur in during field deployment, extending the test to 2000 and 3000 hours may cause failures that are not observed in the field. Therefore, the PV Module Quality Assurance Task Force (PVQAT) is trying to formulate accelerated tests that will be useful towards achieving the ultimate goal of assuring useful lifetime over the warranty period. Examples of accelerated stress tests and the failure modes that can be detected by them in crystalline silicon modules are as follows: damp heat test: corrosion, delamination, junction box adhesion; humidity freeze: delamination, junction box adhesion, insufficiently cured encapsulant; thermal cycles: broken interconnect, broken cells, electrical bond failure, junction box adhesion, potential for arcing. There are 12 groups working under the PVQAT. Of these the Group 8 deals with the Thin Film Module Reliability. It works on the following degradation issues that have been identified for Thin Film PV: corrosion including system voltage induced degradation, semiconductor junction diffusion, cell-to-cell; cell-to-outside interconnections and delamination (structural-macro and micro). The activities of Thin Film Module Reliability Group 8 will be presented.

The expected lifetime performance and degradation of photovoltaic (PV) modules is a major issue facing the levelized cost of electricity of PV as a competitive energy source. Studies that quantify the rates and mechanisms of performance degradation are needed not only for bankability and adoption of these promising technologies, but also for the diagnosis and improvement of their mechanistic degradation pathways. Towards this goal, a generalizable approach to degradation science studies utilizing data science principles has been developed and applied to c-Si PV modules. By combining domain knowledge and data derived insights, mechanistic degradation pathways are indicated that link environmental stressors to the degradation of PV module performance characteristics. Targeted studies guided by these results have yielded predictive equations describing rates of degradation, and further studies are underway to achieve this for additional mechanistic pathways of interest.

The dark measurements technique which were developed to analyze the material properties of solar cells in a PV module and performed either at DC or at AC conditions, can give useful information on the quality of the active material. This technique leads to better understanding the PV module degradation processes, occurring during indoor qualification testing or in real operating conditions. To this purpose an indoor testing laboratory has been set up to detect and monitor the PV modules degradation. A simple technique, based on the analysis of the behaviour of PV devices biased by an AC signal on dark conditions, has been developed to easily and quickly evaluate some parameters like the series, the shunt resistances and the capacitance affecting their electrical characteristics. In the present paper the technique basic concepts will be illustrated. Preliminary experimental results, achieved by applying the technique to some kinds of PV modules based on simple and triple junction’s silicon amorphous solar cells, will be presented.

PV System Reliability Program at Sandia National Labs: From Material-Level to System-Level Analysis

The use of photovoltaic (PV) is not anymore an option but a real need in the construction of nearly zero energy buildings. To date, the lack of PV products specifically designed for building integration, considering aesthetics and architectural aspects, is one important limiting factor allowing a massive deployment of PV in the built environment. Architects are continuously asking for new solutions to customize the colour of PV elements to better integrate them into the building skin. Among these colours, white is especially attractive as it is widely used in architecture for its elegance, versatility and fresh look. Until now, white solar modules were not considered to be an option and even never been though to be a technological possibility. Nonetheless, CSEM recently developed a new technology to make white solar modules a reality. Furthermore, the new Swiss company called Solaxess is now working on the industrialisation of this very innovative technology and the first products are expecting to be on the market at the end of 2015. The technology is based on the combination of two different elements: a solar cell able to convert solar infrared light into electricity and a selective filter which reflects and diffuse the whole visible spectrum. Any PV technology based on crystalline silicon can be used as they have a good response in the infrared. Approximately 55% of the current generated under standard test conditions comes from the infrared leading to conversion efficiencies above 11%. We will demonstrate, that thanks to this very innovative technology PV modules can become attractive and real active building elements and therefore meets the requirements of any future energy management through advanced building skins.

Recently prices of photovoltaic (PV) systems have been reduced considerably and may continue to be reduced making them attractive. If these systems provide electricity over the stipulated warranty period, it would be possible attain socket parity within the next few years. Current photovoltaic module qualifications tests help in minimizing infant mortality but do not guarantee useful lifetime over the warranty period. The PV Module Quality Assurance Task Force (PVQAT) is trying to formulate accelerated tests that will be useful towards achieving the ultimate goal of assuring useful lifetime over the warranty period as well as to assure manufacturing quality. Unfortunately, assuring the manufacturing quality may require 24/7 presence. Alternatively, collecting data on the performance of fielded systems would assist in assuring manufacturing quality. Here PV systems installed by home-owners and small businesses can constitute as an important untapped source of data. The volunteer group, PV - Reliable, Safe and Sustainable Quality! (PVRessQ!) is providing valuable service to small PV system owners. Photovoltaic Reliability Group (PVRG) is initiating activities in USA and Brazil to assist home owners and small businesses in monitoring photovoltaic (PV) module performance and enforcing warranty. It will work in collaboration with small PV system owners, consumer protection agencies. Brazil is endowed with excellent solar irradiance making it attractive for installation of PV systems. Participating owners of small PV systems would instruct inverter manufacturers to copy the daily e-mails to PVRG and as necessary, will authorize the PVRG to carry out review of PV systems. The presentation will consist of overall activities of PVRG in USA and Brazil.

The U.S. Department of Energy’s SunShot Initiative was launched in 2011 to make subsidy-free solar electricity cost competitive with conventional energy sources by the end of the decade. Research in reliability can play a major role in realizing the SunShot goal of $0.06/kWh. By improving photovoltaic module lifetime and reducing degradation rates, a system’s lifetime energy output is increased. Increasing confidence in photovoltaic performance prediction can lower perceived investment risk and thus the cost of capital. Accordingly, in 2015, SunShot expects to award more than $40 million through its SunShot National Laboratory Multiyear Partnership (SuNLaMP) and Physics of Reliability: Evaluating Design Insights for Component Technologies in Solar (PREDICTS) 2 funding programs, for research into reliability topics such as determining acceleration factors, modeling degradation rates and failure mechanisms, improving predictive performance models, and developing new test methods and instrumentation.

Plasmonics-based GaAs metal-semiconductor-metal photodetector (MSM-PD) with aluminum nano-gratings was proposed. A detailed numerical study of subwavelength nanogratings behavior to reduce the light reflection is performed by finite-difference time domain (FDTD) algorithm. The geometric parameters of nano-gratings, such as aperture width, the nano-gratings height, the duty cycles are optimized for subwavelength metal nanogratings on GaAs substrate and their impact on light reflection below the conventional MSM-PD is confirmed. Simulation results show that a light reflection factor around 15% can be obtained near the wavelength of 900 nm with optimized MSM-PDs, and in visible light spectrum, the Al nano-gratings show better performance than Au nano-gratings.

The plasma CVD reactor with parallel plate electrodes was used for plasma enhanced chemical vapor deposition (PECVD) of two type’s silicon carbide thin films on Si substrates. The concentration of elements in the films was determined by RBS and ERD analytical method simultaneously. The chemical compositions of the samples were analyzed by FTIR method. RBS and ERD results showed that the films contain silicon, carbon, hydrogen and small amount of oxygen. FTIR results confirmed the presence of Si-C, Si-H, C-H, and Si-O bonds. From the FTIR spectra the main following vibration frequencies were determined: the band from 2800 to 3000 cm^-1 is attributed to stretching vibration of the CHn group in both the sp2 (2880 cm^-1) and sp3 (2920 cm^-1) configurations. The band at 2100 cm^-1 is due to SiHm stretching vibrations. The band at 780 cm^-1 can be assigned to Si-C stretching vibration. Main features of FTIR spectra were Gaussian fitted and detailed analyses of chemical bonding in SiC films were performed. Differences between two types of SiC films were discussed with the aim to using these films in the heterojunction solar cell technology.

Amorphous silicon carbide films were deposited by plasma enhanced chemical vapor deposition (PECVD) technology using SiH₄, CH₄, H₂ and NH₃ gas as precursors. The concentration of elements in the films was determined by RBS and ERD analytical method. Chemical compositions were analyzed by FT-IR spectroscopy. Raman spectroscopy study of the SiC films were performed by using a Raman microscope. Irradiation of samples with neutrons to fluencies A(7.9x10¹⁴ cm^-2), B(5x10¹⁵ cm^-2) and C(3.4x10¹⁶ cm^-2) was performed at room temperature. Raman spectroscopy results of SiC films showed decreasing of Raman band feature intensity after neutron irradiation and slightly decreased with increased neutron fluencies. Raman spectra differences between types of films before and after neutron irradiation are discussed. The electrical properties of SiC films were determined by the I-V measurement at 295 K. The measured currents were greater (about two order) after irradiation than the current before irradiation for all samples and rose up with neutron fluencies.

This paper reports on a précis of degradation mechanism for dye-sensitized solar cell (DSSCs). The review indicates progress in the understanding of degradation mechanism, in particular, the large improvement in the analysis of the materials used in DSSCs. The paper discussed on the stability issues of the dye, advancement of the photoelectrode film lifetime, changes in the electrolyte components and degradation analysis of the counter electrode. The photoelectrochemical parameters were evaluated in view of the possible degradation routes via open circuit voltage (V_oc), short circuit current (I_sc), fill factor (FF) and overall conversion efficiency (η) from the current-voltage curve. This analysis covers several types of materials that have paved the way for better-performing solar cells and directly influenced the stability and reliability of DSSCs. The new research trend together with the previous research has been highlighted to examine the key challenges faced in developing the ultimate DSSCs.

Defects in multicrystalline silicon solar cells such as impurities, gain boundaries, dislocations and metallic impurities have great influence to the final conversion efficiency of devices. Moreover, different kinds of defects and defects at different depth layers in multicrystalline silicon solar cell play different roles to the final performance of devices. This paper proposes a fast technique via electroluminescence imaging method to distinguish different types and depths defects. Different types of defects have various influences to the distribution of extra minority carriers which would result in the distinctions in the final luminescence spectrum and intensity. Therefore, we can recognize these defects via a group of EL images in a few seconds. Also, we found that defects at different depths show a closely relationship with electrical breakdown which would lead to the differences on the final electroluminescence properties. The EL images under different forward-biased and reversed-biased voltages give a clear separation of defects near the front surface, around p-n junction and in bulk material. Light beam induced current (LBIC) imaging is used to verify the methods we proposed. These modern imaging methods could become popular methods in photovoltaic testing field, and we hope our research could give some help in the study of silicon based devices.