This PDF file contains the front matter associated with SPIE Proceedings Volume 9683, including the Title Page, Copyright information, Table of Contents, Introduction, and Conference Committee listing.

The current study presents a detailed theoretical analysis on the performance of aerostatic journal bearings. The dimensionless Reynolds equation is derived and discretized by the finite difference method. An iterative procedure is adopted to get the air film pressure distribution. The bearing characteristics such as load capacity, stiffness and air flow rate under various bearing operating and geometric parameters are investigated. The numerical results show that the journal rotation plays an important role on the bearing characteristics, and the rotating speeds must be taken into consideration. The proposed method provides a valuable approach for analyzing the performance of aerostatic journal bearings, and can be used for the bearing optimizing design.

Due to the high hardness of SiC ceramics, the wear of the arc-shaped metal bonded diamond wheels is very serious during the grinding process of large-aperture aspheric SiC mirrors. The surface accuracy and surface/sub-surface quality of the aspheric mirror will be affected seriously if the grinding wheel is not timely dressed. Therefore, this paper focus on the in-process dressing of the arc-shaped metal bonded diamond wheels. In this paper, the application of the asymmetric arc profile grinding wheel in the grinding of aspheric mirrors is discussed first. Then a rotating cup-shaped electrode in-process electro discharge dressing device for the arc-shaped wheels is developed based on the analysis. The dressing experiments are carried out with the device. The experimental results show that the in-process dressing device can did the dressing for the asymmetric and symmetric arc-shaped wheel. The profile error of the arc can reach to 3μm with the in-process dressing device.

Ultra-precision noncircular optical components, e.g. hyperbolic quadrupole in mass spectrometer, can be machined by diamond turning assisted by slow tool servo (STS). However, the bandwidth of STS is usually small, which limits the STS's capability in following the required tool path, leading to a large form error. To reduce the form error, this paper proposes an approach to apply variable spindle speed (VSS) to STS-based turning. Design of the VSS trajectory based on the noncircular profile of the optical component was investigated in detail. To validate the proposed approach, simulation on the application of VSS in the STS-based turning process was established and applied to the machining of typical noncircular optical components. Simulation results show that the proposed approach is effective in reducing the requirement on the bandwidth of the STS, resulting in higher form accuracy of the machined noncircular optical components.

Fluent jet polishing is a new precision optical surface machining method. To improve the removal efficiency of jet machining, a rectangular-nozzle has been designed to take the place of the traditional round nozzle. According to the principles of fluid dynamics, the flow field characteristic of rectangular-nozzle structure was analyzed theoretically. The flow field distribution of different models is calculated. The shape of the rectangular nozzle has an important influence on the jet flow field distribution. So an analysis model is established to discuss the fluid field characteristics of different rectangular-nozzle structure. The impact process of several typical rectangular-nozzle is simulated by FLUENT, and the flow jet pressure and velocity distribution on the workpiece have been obtained. Then the influence on the dynamic characteristics of different impact angle is analyzed, and the corresponding rectangular-nozzle flow field distribution features are calculated by changing the impact angle.

The article describes the technology of production of astronomical and space mirrors from Astrositall CO-115M including its properties and stability of these properties over time and presents the results of material long-term testing. The article also describes computer-controlled methods of large-scaled optics production and testing, including high aspherical, off-axis and thin mirrors, using the examples of production of mirrors at JSC LZOS.

Vacuum system for reflective coatings deposition on large-size optical components up to 4.0 m diameter using the method of magnetron sputtering was built at JSC LZOS. The technological process for deposition of reflective Al coating with protective SiO₂ layer was designed and approved. After climatic tests the lifetime of such coating was estimated as 30 years. Uniformity of coating thickness ±5% was achieved on maximum diameter 4.0 m.

Ion beam figuring (IBF) provides a highly deterministic method for the final precision figuring of optical components. According to the Sigmund sputtering theory, the mass of incident ions is an important factor to the sputtering rate and the optical surface quality. Both Ar⁺ and Kr⁺ are alternative ions in IBF, but the mass of Kr⁺ equals two times that of Ar⁺. In order to achieve the nanometer and sub-nanometer precision fabrication with IBF, the optical material removal property of Ar⁺ and Kr⁺ ions was researched. The bombardment process had been simulated with the software TRIM, and the sputtering yield of Ar⁺ and Kr⁺ ions for different incident angles was calculated. Then the removal function experiments on Si were conducted. The simulations and experiments result indicated that Ar⁺ ion beam achieves higher removal rate at 0° incident angle, but Kr⁺ ion beam performs more efficiently when the incident angle gets across a critical point.

Potassium dihydrogen phosphate (KDP) crystals play an important role in the laser ignition facility of inertial confinement fusion (ICF) due to its unique large size and transparency. However, the laser damage threshold (LDT) of KDP crystal components is far below the intrinsic threshold that the band structure of a perfect crystal should provide. It has been considered that the surface/subsurface defects of a KDP component have a significant effect on the low LDT. This paper investigates the surface fogging phenomenon when a KDP is machined by a dry diamond fly-cutting. The subsurface damage was detected with the aid of the grazing incidence X-ray diffraction (GIXD) method. It was found that the subsurface structure changed from the KDP single crystal to a lattice misaligned structure due to the fly-cutting.

Spinel has outstanding optical performances and mechanical performances, and it is suitable material for infrared window and dome. But it is extremely difficult to machine spinel with high accuracy, especially in the machining process with compliant polishing tools, grain profiles will appear on the machined surface, which will result in the deterioration for machining accuracy, surface quality and optical performance. In this paper, analyzing the microscopic figure of spinel in the process of complaint polishing and founding the gradient change obviously on the edge of the grain profile, which has significant influence on the surface roughness. The spinel substrates are separately polished by using pitch tool, polyurethane tool and magnetorheological fluid, the values of surface roughness are respectively Ra 2.3nm, Ra 8.5nm and Ra 64.6nm, and the corresponding characteristic scales of grain profile are 180μm~200μm, 160μm~200μm and 200μm~250μm. Furthermore, the peak value of grain profile is proportional to the polishing tool flexibility, inverse proportional to the rigidity and the size of polishing powder, and the flexibility expression for polishing tool is given on the conditions of different machining parameters. On this basis, the high accuracy and ultra smooth surface of the spinel are obtained by the optimum polishing conditions.

During the conventional optical shaping process of fused silica, lapping is generally used to remove grinding damage layer. But this process is of low efficiency, it cannot meet the demand of large aperture optical components. Therefore, Inductively Coupled Plasma Processing (ICPP) was proposed to remove grinding damage layer instead of lapping. ICPP is a non-contact, deterministic figuring technology performed at atmospheric pressure. The process benefits from its ability to simultaneously remove sub-surface damage (SSD) while imparting the desired figure to the surface with high material remove rate. The removing damage capability of ICPP has preliminarily been confirmed on medium size optical surfaces made of fused silica, meanwhile serious edge warping was found. This paper focused on edge effect and a technique has been designed to compensate for these difficulties. Then it was demonstrated on a large aperture fused silica mirror (Long320mm×Wide370mm×High50mm), the removal depth was 30.2μm and removal rate got 6.6mm3/min. The results indicate that ICPP can rapidly remove damage layer on the fused silica induced by the previous grinding process and edge effect is effective controlled.

The high-precision fabrication of micro-/nano-structure is a challenge. In this paper, we proposed a new fabrication method of high-precision structure based on an etching resistance layer. The high-precision features were fabricated by photolithography technique, followed by the etching process to transfer the features to the substrate. During this process, the etching uniformity and error lead to the feature distortion. We introduced an etching resistance layer between feature layer and substrate. The etching process will stop when arriving at the resistance layer. Due to the high precision of the plating film, the high-precision structure depth was achieved. In our experiment, we introduced aluminum trioxide as the etching resistance layer. The structures with low depth error of less than 5% were fabricated.

Method of smoothing an aspheric surface was studied and discussed in this paper, and a new design of smoothing tool called bonnet-like polishing tool was used to smooth out Mid-Spatial-Frequency (MSF) errors. A concave surface with F# 0.8 and a huge departure of 1mm from best fit radius was polished by this new bonnet-like polishing tool in this paper. The tool can be well matched to the changing radius of the aspheric surface and can effectively restrain MSF errors on the surface. After pre-polishing, the surface was first smoothed by the tool and then was corrected by the bonnet polishing method. This iteration was continued until the MSF errors were nearly gone. In this process, the aspheric surface was first tested by Luphoscan and then tested by CGH when the surface was good enough, which can ensure the accuracy of the surface. This new tool was successfully used to polish a 240mm aperture asphere. Finally, after two iterations between surface smoothing and figure correction, the surface accuracy converged to 5.7nm RMS as well as the period between 1mm to 10 mm converged to around 4nm RMS. The result shows that this method can realize the valid polishing of high-accuracy aspheric surface with mm-scale departure.

Since it is difficult to control the lateral coating thickness with super high accuracy only in the depositing process, and the requirement of that is strict in deep ultraviolet lithography (DUV) objective or other systems, a method using Ion beam figuring (IBF) technique to correct lateral thickness non-uniformity of thin film has been developed, which can also be used to optimize optical elements’ surface profiles after it’s been coated. Experiments were done to test the correct effect of thickness non-uniformity by IBF. The substrate used in the experiments is a SiO₂ flat and the thin film material is TiO₂. The thickness non-uniformity of the thin film is measured by interferometer and expressed as surface errors, which was about root mean square (RMS) value 1.2nm before IBF correction. After 2 iterative IBF process, the RMS value of TiO₂ thin film’s surface was reduced to about 0.5nm. The improvement of the surface profile indicates that the new proposed method is effective. The waviness and roughness of the TiO₂ thin film were also measured by white light interferometer and atom force microscope separately before and after IBF correction; the differences of the measured results indicate that the microstructure of the thin film doesn’t change too much. Finally the transmitted and reflection spectrums of the TiO₂ thin film were also measured and the variations of optical characteristics are discussed.

The surface chemistry reaction involved in the processing of Atmospheric Pressure Plasma Jet (APPJ) produced from CF₄ precursor has been explored. The atomic emission spectroscopy of F atoms and CF₂ molecules was investigated as they contribute to substrate etching and FC film formation during APPJ processing. Optical emission spectroscopy (OES) spectra were acquired for CF₄ plasma, relative concentrations of excited state species of F atoms and CF₂ molecules were also dependent upon plasma parameters. The densities of F atoms increased dramatically with increasing applied RF power, whereas CF₂ molecules decreased monotonically over the same power range, the subsequent electron impacted decomposition of plasma species after CF₄ precursor fragmentation. The spectrum of the F atoms and CF₂ molecules fallowed the same tendency with the increasing concentration of gas CF₄, reaching the maximum at the 20sccm and 15sccm respectively, and then the emission intensity of reactive atoms decreased with more CF₄ molecules participating. Addition certain amount O₂ into CF₄ plasma resulted in promoting CF₄ dissociation, O₂ can easily react with the dissociation product of CF₂ molecules, which inhibit the compound of the F atoms, so with the increasing concentration of O₂, the concentration of the CF₂ molecules decreased and the emission intensities of F atoms showed the maximum at the O₂/CF₄ ratio of 20%. These results have led to the development of a scheme that illustrates the mechanisms of surface chemistry reaction and the affection of plasma parameters in CF₄ plasma systems with respect to F and CF₂ gas-phase species.

The SiC brazing mirror is the mirror whose blank is made by assembling together smaller SiC pieces with brazing technique. Using such kinds of joining techniques, people can manufacture large and complex SiC assemblies. The key technologies of fabricating and testing SiC brazing flat mirror especially for large aperture were studied. The SiC brazing flat mirror was ground by smart ultrasonic-milling machine, and then it was lapped by the lapping smart robot and measured by Coordinate Measuring Machine (CMM). After the PV of the surface below 4um, we did classic coarse polishing to the surface and studied the shape of the polishing tool which directly effects removal amount distribution. Finally, it was figured by the polishing smart robot and measured by Fizeau interferometer. We also studied the influence of machining path and removal functions of smart robots on the manufacturing results and discussed the use of abrasive in this process. At last, an example for fabricating and measuring a similar SiC brazing flat mirror with the aperture of 600 mm made by Shanghai Institute of Ceramics was given. The mirror blank consists of 6 SiC sectors and the surface was finally processed to a result of the Peak-to-Valley (PV) 150nm and Root Mean Square (RMS) 12nm.

Base on the special characters of off-axis spherical and three-axis ion beam figuring (IBF) system, a method of obtaining the removal function depending on incidence angles are introduced and the curve be indicated. Keeping the fabrication coordinate coincident to the optical coordinate can avoid the transformation of interferometry map, which could introduce the distortion error. By analyzing of the process of polishing the 562mm×290mm off-axis mirror, the polishing experimentation has been carried out on the IBF2000 system developed by NTG. After two iterations and 37.2 hours polishing time, the RMS value of surface accuracy is from 0.033λ to 0.016λ, and the mid-spatial error mitigated dramatically. The experimentation indicates that using the non-contacting polishing feature of IBF with reasonable optimizing process, the surface accuracy and the mid-spatial error can be improved simultaneously.

For missiles and airplanes with high Mach number, traditional spherical or flat window can cause a lot of air drag. Conformal window that follow the general contour of surrounding surface can substantially decrease air drag and extend operational range. However, the local shape of conformal window changes across the Field Of Regard (FOR), leading to time-varying FOR-dependent wavefront aberration and degraded image. So the correction of dynamic aberration is necessary. In this paper, model-based Wavefront Sensorless Adaptive Optics (WSAO) algorithm is investigated both by simulation and experiment for central-obscured pupil. The algorithm is proved to be effective and the correction accuracy of using DM modes is higher than Lukosz modes. For dynamic aberration in our system, the SR can be better than 0.8 when the change of looking angle is less than 2° after t seconds which is the time delay of the control system.

Wafer based precision glass optics manufacturing has been an innovative approach for combining high accuracy with mass production. However, due to the small ratio of thickness and diameter of the glass wafer, deformation and residual stress would be induced for the nonuniform temperature distribution in the glass wafer after molding. Therefore, thermal modelling of the heating system in the wafer based precision glass molding (PGM) process is of great importance in optimizing the heating system and the technique of the process. The current paper deals with a transient thermal modelling of a self-developed heating system for wafer based PGM process. First, in order to investigate the effect of radiation from the surface and interior of the glass wafer, the thermal modeling is simulated with a discrete ordinates radiation model in the CFD software FLUENT. Temperature distribution of the glass wafer obtained from the simulations is then used to evaluate the performance of heating system and investigate some importance parameters in the model, such as interior and surface radiation in glass wafer, thermal contact conductance between glass wafer and molds, thickness to diameter ratio of glass wafer. Finally, structure modification in the molding chamber is raised to decrease the temperature gradient in the glass wafer and the effect is significant.

During the deterministic processing, dwell time map is the precondition to achieve the high precision surface. It is very important to obtain V-like shape removal function for the dwell time computation when using the numerical iteration method. As one of the ultra-precision polishing method, Fluid jet polishing (FJP) has been used widely in optical fabrication. But the shape of removal function of existing vertical jet polishing is W like. So, eccentric rotation jet device was usually used to correct the shape of remove function from W-like to V-like shape. In this paper, we put forward a concept of rotary function, and its can take the place of eccentric rotary device to achieve faster solve of dwell time and make the equipment structure simplify. We also put forward the layer by layer dwell time computation method and efficiently avoid the convergence failure.

A new method for controlling the groove profiles of diffraction gratings which changes the etching angle and etching time, meanwhile divides the etching area in the substrate into multi-layers to have a good approximation for the theory is introduced. We put forward a multi-layers etching model on the base of the ion bean sputtering (IBS) which can calculate the etching time and etching angle. We test the curved grooves profiles and get the optimizations for the number of the multi-layers, etching time and etching time in this model. Also a photoresist grating is applied for the etching experiment. The results indicate that the optimized parameters such as the number of the multi-layers result in a smaller root mean square deviation (RMSD) between the theory and the real etching result which show good agreement with the theoretical groove within the variation of ±6% of the etching rate. The simulation predictions and experimental results show that the multi-layers etching model to control the groove profiles of diffraction gratings is available.

Optical fabrication and metrology technologies are studied in the paper to improve the accuracy of surface figure of a convex aspheric mirror. First, the main specifications of a convex aspheric mirror which is chosen to be the secondary mirror of an optical system are presented. The aperture of the mirror is 400mm. The mirror is made of ultra-low expansion (ULE) glass with honeycomb sandwich structure to get the ideal lightweight requirement. Then the mirror is surfaced by ultrasonic grinding, smart robot lapping and smart robot polishing processes relatively. Large-apertured tool is applied to reduce the mid-frequency surface error. Both the contour measuring method in the grinding and lapping stage and the measuring method with meniscus lens and its calibration mirror in the polishing stage are studied. The final surface figure of the mirror is that the root mean-square value (RMS value) is 0.016λ (λ=632.8nm), which meets the requirement of the optical system. The results show that the forging surfacing processes and measuring methods are accurate and efficient to fabricate the convex aspheric mirror and can be applied in optical fabrication for larger-apertured convex aspheric mirrors.

Silicon carbide, as a new reflector material, its excellent physical and chemical properties has been widely recognized by the industry. In order to make SiC mirror better used in space optical system, we used digital coating equipment during its coating process. By using ion-assisted electron evaporation method, we got a complete metal reflective film system on the surface of finely polished silicon carbide mirror. After automated coating process, by adjusting the coating parameters during the process, the surface roughness of silicon carbide improved from 7.8 nm to 5.1 nm, and the average optical reflectance of the surface reached 95% from visible to near-infrared. The metal reflective film system kept well after annealing and firmness test. As a result, the work of this paper will provide an important reference for high-precision coating process on large diameter SiC mirror.

In recent years, major projects, such as National Ignition Facility and Laser Mégajoule, have generated great demands for large aperture optics with high surface accuracy and low Subsurface Damage (SSD) at the mean time. In order to remove SSD and improve surface quality, optics is fabricated by sub-aperture polishing. However, the efficiency of the sub-aperture polishing has been a bottleneck step for the optics manufacturing. Atmospheric Pressure Plasma Processing (APPP) as an alternate method offers high potential for speeding up the polishing process. This technique is based on chemical etching, hence there is no physical contact and no damage is induced. In this paper, a fast polishing machine tool is presented which is designed for fast polishing of the large aperture optics using APPP. This machine tool employs 3PRS-XY hybrid structure as its framework. There is a platform in the 3PRS parallel module to support the plasma generating system. And the large work piece is placed on the XY stage. In order to realize the complex motion trajectory for polishing the freeform optics, five axis of the tool operate simultaneously. To overcome the complexity of inverse kinematics calculation, a dedicated motion control system is also designed for speeding up the motion response. For high removal rate, the individual influence of several key processing parameters is investigated. And under specific production condition, this machine tool offers a high material over 30mm3/min for fused silica substrates. This results shows that APPP machine tool has a strong potential for fast polishing large optics without introducing SSD.

In ultra-precision oblique axis grinding process for machining micro aspherical mould, form error of aspherical surface is caused by the inconsistence elastic deformation of grinding system, which derived from differences velocity from inside to out. In this case, whole PV value can meet requirements, however, pits are produced in central after error compensation, which is unworkable. In this paper, mechanism of machining error caused by grinding system rigidity is analyzed, and experiments are carried out. Form error compensation grinding are carried out in the central local area, based on traditional error compensation method, which can effectively eliminate the pits of surface center. In this method, cemented carbide YG8 which diameter is about 6mm is ground. The results showed that the form accuracy under PV 200 nm and under PV 50 nm within the scope of 1 mm, and the surface roughness under Ra2nm.

The principle of measuring displacement by eddy current sensor was derived. The calibration experiment was carried out for 5 kinds of different materials, which showed that the linearity of eddy current sensor was better, and the sensitivity of eddy current sensor varied with different materials. Based on the principle of measuring displacement by eddy current sensor, the on-line detection system for diamond circular wheel was designed, and the data acquisition was realized by using LABVIEW software. By moving the eddy current sensor in the vertical direction with the grinding wheel fixed, the coordinate of arc in the grinding wheel was obtained. The radius of the grinding wheel was fitted by using the genetic algorithm, which showed that the fitting results were accurate. The data acquisition of the grinding wheel was carried out in a cycle by fixing the electric eddy current sensor and the circulars of the grinding wheel in different processes, namely before dressing, after dressing and after shaping. The results showed that the circular of the grinding wheel after dressing and after shaping were significantly improved compared with that before dressing.

Potassium dihydrogen phosphate (KDP) is a type of nonlinear optical crystal material. To Inhibit the transverse stimulated Raman scattering of laser beam and then enhance the optical performance of the optics, the edges of the large-sized KDP crystal needs to be removed to form chamfered faces with high surface quality (RMS<5 nm). However, as the depth of cut (DOC) of fly cutting is usually several, its machining efficiency is too low to be accepted for chamfering of the KDP crystal as the amount of materials to be removed is in the order of millimeter. This paper proposes a novel hybrid machining method, which combines precision grinding with fly cutting, for crackless and high efficiency chamfer of KDP crystal. A specialized machine tool, which adopts aerostatic bearing linear slide and aerostatic bearing spindle, was developed for chamfer of the KDP crystal. The aerostatic bearing linear slide consists of an aerostatic bearing guide with linearity of 0.1 μm/100mm and a linear motor to achieve linear feeding with high precision and high dynamic performance. The vertical spindle consists of an aerostatic bearing spindle with the rotation accuracy (axial) of 0.05 microns and Fork type flexible connection precision driving mechanism. The machining experiment on flying and grinding was carried out, the optimize machining parameters was gained by a series of experiment. Surface roughness of 2.4 nm has been obtained. The machining efficiency can be improved by six times using the combined method to produce the same machined surface quality.

The slab laser is a promising architecture to achieve high beam quality and high power. By propagating the laser beams in zigzag geometries, the temperature gradient in the gain medium can be well averaged, and the beam quality in this direction can be excellent. However, the temperature gradient in the non-zigzag direction is not compensated, resulting in aberrations in this direction which lead to poorer beam quality. Among the overall aberrations, the main contributors are two low-order aberrations: astigmatism and defocus. These aberrations will magnify beam divergence angle and degrade beam quality. If the beam divergence angles in both directions are almost zero, the astigmatism and defocus are well corrected. Besides, the output beams of slab lasers are generally in a rectangular aperture with high aspect ratio (normally 1:10), which need to be reshaped into square in many applications. In this paper, a new method is proposed to correct low-order aberrations and reshape the beams of slab lasers. Three lenses are adapted, one is a spherical lens and the others are cylindrical lenses. These lenses work as a beam shaping system, which converts the beam from rectangular into square and the low-order aberrations are compensated simultaneously. Two wavefront sensors are used to detect input and output beam parameters. The initial size of the beam is 4mm×20mm, and peak to valley (PV) value of the wavefront is several tens of microns. Simulation results show that after correction, the dimension becomes 40mm×40mm, and peak to valley (PV) value of the wavefront is less than 1microns.

When the environment temperature has changed, then each parameter in infrared lens has also changed, thus the image quality became bad, so athermal technology is one of key technology in designing infrared lens. The temperature influence of each parameter in infrared lens is analyzed in the paper. In the paper, an athermal mid-wave infrared optical system with long focal length by Code-v optical design software was presented. The parameters of the athermal infrared system are 4.0 f/number, 704mm effective focal length (EFL) , 1° field of view and 3.7-4.8 μm spectrum region 100% cold shield efficiency. When the spatial frequency is 16lp/mm, the Modulation Transfer Function (MTF) of all the field of view was above 0.5 from the working temperature range -40℃ to 60℃. From the image quality and thermal analysis result, we knew that the lens had good athermal performance.

Optical properties, surface roughness and packing density of TiO₂ thin films are studied by obliquely deposited on K9 glass by electron beam evaporation. The surface roughness of TiO₂ thin films with different incident deposition angle is compared. The experimental results show that the transmittance increases and transmittance peak shifts to short wavelength with increasing incident deposition angle, the packing density of TiO₂ thin films decrease from 0.80 to 0.34 with incident deposition angle increasing from 0° to 75°. The surface roughness of TiO₂ thin films increase with increasing incident deposition angle. The surface roughness of TiO₂ thin films is slightly bigger than the surface roughness of K9 substrate when the incident deposition angle is 75°. When the incident deposition angle is constant, TiO₂ thin films surface roughness decrease with increase of film thickness.

The radius of curvature (ROC) is one of the most important parameters of sphere optic components. In optic fine grinding process, radius of curvature accuracy requires up to 0.1%. We propose a method based on high precision CNC grinding machine, develop ROC online measurement method for fine grinding optics. This rapid method only takes few measurement points based on spiral route path, attaining enough accuracy and reduce the time cost, furthermore, can greatly reduce the repeated installation error. Analyzing the uncertainty sources that affect to the ROC measurement results, calculates the combined standard uncertainty 32.8 micron. Completed comparison experiments with CMM, the standard deviation of the experiment result are about 18 micron that approaches to CMM results.

We used the explicit expression of Zernike polynomials in Cartesian coordinates to fit and describe the freeform surface of progressive addition lens (PAL). The derivatives of Zernike polynomials can easily be calculated from the explicit expression and used to calculate the principal curvatures of freeform surface based on differential geometry. The surface spherical power and surface astigmatism of the freeform surface were successfully derived from the principal curvatures. By comparing with the traditional analytical method, Zernike polynomials with order of 20 is sufficient to represent the freeform surface with nanometer accuracy if dense sampling of the original surface is achieved. Therefore, the data files which contain the massive sampling points of the freeform surface for the generation of the trajectory of diamond tool tip required by diamond machine for PAL manufacture can be simplified by using a few Zernike coefficients.

The Magnetorheological finishing (MRF) process, based on the dwell time method with the constant normal spacing for flexible polishing, would bring out the normal contour error in the fine polishing complex surface such as aspheric surface. The normal contour error would change the ribbon’s shape and removal characteristics of consistency for MRF. Based on continuously scanning the normal spacing between the workpiece and the finder by the laser range finder, the novel method was put forward to measure the normal contour errors while polishing complex surface on the machining track. The normal contour errors was measured dynamically, by which the workpiece’s clamping precision, multi-axis machining NC program and the dynamic performance of the MRF machine were achieved for the verification and security check of the MRF process. The unit for measuring the normal contour errors of complex surface on-machine was designed. Based on the measurement unit’s results as feedback to adjust the parameters of the feed forward control and the multi-axis machining, the optimized servo control method was presented to compensate the normal contour errors. The experiment for polishing 180mm × 180mm aspherical workpiece of fused silica by MRF was set up to validate the method. The results show that the normal contour error was controlled in less than 10um. And the PV value of the polished surface accuracy was improved from 0.95λ to 0.09λ under the conditions of the same process parameters. The technology in the paper has been being applied in the PKC600-Q1 MRF machine developed by the China Academe of Engineering Physics for engineering application since 2014. It is being used in the national huge optical engineering for processing the ultra-precision optical parts.

Based on holographic recording technique, a study of the precise control of grating masks has been carried out. The incident light can be heavily absorbed even that photoresist thickness is under the submicron scale. The absorption rate of the photoresist will change greatly along the exposure processing, and it can serious influence the exposure dose of the photosensitive resin in the photoresist. In the old photographic models, it can’t get practical exposure dose distribution in the photoresist. In this paper, a new nonlinear photographic model is proposed, which is based on the absorption rate changing with the exposure dose. The new model can get more accurate exposure dose than that of the old models. The experiment of the developing speed changing with the exposure dose is carried out, and the developing speed variation curve is obtained. The experiment of the absorption rate changing with the exposure dose is also carried out, and the absorption rate variation curve is obtained. The experiment of fabricate holographic grating is also carried out. The dynamic analysis model of the grating mask structure agrees with the experimental results. The new nonlinear photographic model is of great significance to improve the control precision of holographic grating mask.

In order to investigate the influence of the defects of the optical component on the scattering characteristics, the values of the Mie scattering of a single defect in different size have been calculated based on Mie scattering theory. On this basis, according to the national testing standard of defect levels, the BSDF curve of the optical component under different level of defects has been simulated by using the statistical model of the defect distribution of the optical component. Furthermore, the influence of the different defect level of the optical component and the wavelength of the incident light on the scattering characteristics has also been discussed. The results indicate that, for the given incident wavelength, the value of the Mie scattering increases with the increasing of the size of a single defect and the number of defects on the surface of the optical component. Moreover, for the given wavelength of the incident light, the scattering light energy concentrates with the decreasing of the incident wavelength and the increasing of the level of the defects. The results obtained in this paper can provide valuable reference for the analysis of the scattering characteristics of the optical component surface and the defect tolerance of the optical component.

The metal grating has been widely used in the tunable laser to select frequency, the diffraction efficiency and damage threshold of the gratings are very important to the performance of high power tunable laser. However, because of the light absorption of metal material, the damage threshold of the metal grating is usually not high especially at short wavelength, it is hard to meet the requirements of high power laser. This paper presents the laser frequency selection with multilayer dielectric grating, in this method, the high diffraction efficiency is ensured, and the damage threshold of the grating is improved. Based on the rigorous coupled wave (RCWA) theory, the model of multi-layer dielectric film grating is established, and the theoretical design for the 473nm laser is given. After a series of optimal design, the following results are obtained. HfO2 and SiO2 are selected as multi-layer material, and the multi-layer structure is S(HL)^12HTA .The groove density is 3875 lines/mm. The profile of grating grooves is rectangular .The duty cycle of surface relief structure is between 0.31-0.35, the groove depth is between 270-310nm, the sum of residual thickness and groove depth is between 310-320nm.The -1st diffraction efficiency of the grating is over 98% (TE polarization) at the Littrow angle (66.4 degrees).The diffraction efficiency is higher than that of ordinary metal grating. At the same time, the electric field distribution of the grating is optimized, the peak electric field is avoid located at surface relief structure, and the laser induced damage threshold can be improved.

Digital coding-mask technique based on digital micro-mirror devices (DMD) is proposed in this paper. The fundamental rule of digital coding-mask technique is to modulate the incident light intensity by adjusting the transmittance of the units on the coding-mask. The transmittance is controlled by the apertures on the units of the coding-mask. Lohmann’s III coding method and error diffusion coding method are employed to coding mask, and wavelet transformation is used to suppress the background noise of the mask image. Real-time control on the image of the digital coding mask can be realized by loading the coded mask image to DMD, which is driven by a computer. Digital coding-mask technique gives full play of the advantages of DMD, such as real time and flexibility. In addition, the digital coding-mask technique is helpful to deal with the problem of mask aberration, which is caused by the nonlinear effect in the process of projection and exposure. This technique can also make use of optimization algorithm to suppress the background noise of the digital coding-mask images so that the quality of the relief structure of photoresist is improved.

With the continuous development of industrialization, 3D printing technology steps into individuals’ lives gradually, however, the consequential security issue has become the urgent problem which is imminent. This paper proposes the 3D printing optical watermark algorithms based on the combination of DWT and Fresnel transformation and utilizes authorized key to restrict 3D model printing’s permissions. Firstly, algorithms put 3D model into affine transform, and take the distance from the center of gravity to the vertex of 3D object in order to generate a one-dimensional discrete signal; then make this signal into wavelet transform and put the transformed coefficient into Fresnel transformation. Use math model to embed watermark information into it and finally generate 3D digital model with watermarking. This paper adopts VC++.NET and DIRECTX 9.0 SDK for combined developing and testing, and the results show that in fixed affine space, achieve the robustness in translation, revolving and proportion transforms of 3D model and better watermark-invisibility. The security and authorization of 3D model have been protected effectively.

This paper describes a new polishing tool for the polishing process of the aspheric lens: the wheeled polishing tool, equipping with an elastic polishing wheel which can automatically adapt to the surface shape of the lens, has been used to get high-precision surface based on the grinding action between the polishing wheel and the workpiece. In this paper, 3D model of polishing wheel structure is established by using the finite element analysis software. Distribution of the contact pressure between the polishing wheel and optical element is analyzed, and the contact pressure distribution function is deduced by using the least square method based on Hertz contact theory. The removal functions are deduced under different loading conditions based on Preston hypothesis. Finally, dwell time function is calculated. The simulation results show that the removal function and dwell time function are suitable for the wheeled polishing system, and thus establish a theoretical foundation for future research.

Technology with the use of programmable computer-controlled system and a set of special instruments, which makes possible aspherization of optical elements with deviation from the nearest sphere of more than 1 mm at the stage of milling, grinding and polishing, was developed. The equipment and software for testing the surface shape at all stages of processing, was described.

Surface and subsurface damage in optical element will greatly decrease the laser induced damage threshold (LIDT) in the intense laser optical system. Processing damage on the workpiece surface can be inevitably caused when the material is removed in brittle or plastic mode. As a non-contact polishing technology, hydrodynamic effect polishing (HEP) shows very good performance on generating an ultra-smooth surface without damage. The material is removed by chemisorption between nanoparticle and workpiece surface in the elastic mode in HEP. The subsurface damage and surface scratches can be effectively removed after the polishing process. Meanwhile ultra-smooth surface with atomic level surface roughness can be achieved. To investigate the improvement of LIDT of optical workpiece, polishing experiment was conducted on a magnetorheological finishing (MRF) silica glass sample. AFM measurement results show that all the MRF directional plastic marks have been removed clearly and the root-mean-square (rms) surface roughness has decreased from 0.673nm to 0.177nm after HEP process. Laser induced damage experiment was conducted with laser pulse of 1064nm wavelength and 10ns time width. Compared with the original state, the LEDT of the silica glass sample polished by HEP has increased from 29.78J/cm2 to 45.47J/cm2. It demonstrates that LIDT of optical element treated by HEP can be greatly improved for ultra low surface roughness and nearly defect-free surface/subsurface.

Compare with the manufacturing of the traditional infrared material, such as signal crystal germanium, zinc sulfide, zinc selenide etc, chalcogenide infrared glass is suitable for precision molding for the low soften temperature to have large mass industry production. So the researches of precision glass molding are necessary, especially for the fast development of infrared product. The mold design is one of the key technologies of precision glass molding. In this paper, the mold processing of a sample chalcogenide glass from the technical drawing, mold design, molding to the lens are introduced. From the result of the precision molding, the technology of finite element simulation is a useful way to guiding the mold design. The molded lens by using mold process fit the design requirement.

In order to adapt to small size and low cost space platform such as mini-satellites, this paper studies the design of optics for compact star sensor. At first, the relationship between limiting magnitude and optical system specifications which includes field of view and entrance pupil diameter is analyzed, based on its Pyramid identification algorithm and signal-to-noise ratio requirement. The specifications corresponding to different limiting magnitude can be obtained after the detector is selected, and both of the complexity of optical lens and the size of baffle can be estimated. Then the range of the limiting magnitude can be determined for the miniaturization of the optical system. Taking STAR1000 CMOS detector as an example, the compact design of the optical system can be realized when the limiting magnitude is in the interval of 4.9Mv~5.5Mv. At last, the lens and baffle of a CMOS compact star sensor is optimally designed, of which length and weight is respectively 124 millimeters and 300 grams.

In shape processing of the ultra-thin mirror, deformation will be produced under cutting forces, which is a major cause of quality deterioration. An ultra-thin mirror with diameter-thickness ratio more than 10 is studied in this paper. Rigidity characteristic of the grinding process by diamond wheel is analyzed by FEM. A receptance model of the micro-cutting process and the surface accuracy is established by a self-adaptive multi-scale method according the first strength method. And the effectiveness of the mathematical model is verified by experience. And the dynamic stiffness caused by grinding is optimized. As a result, deformation of the optical surface is reduced to 0.004λ and the acceptable surface accuracy can be achieved.

ZnSe is widely used in infrared optical systems because of the good optical characteristics in 0.5~22μm and the good processability. Physical Vapor Deposition(PVD) of ZnSe is good at no pollution in production process, lower price, etc. Infrared optical parts should be made by single point diamond turning or single point diamond fly-cutting after the experimental investigation of the ultra-precision turning capability of PVD ZnSe. The orthogonal experiment of ultra-precision turning PVD ZnSe was done at first, then the smooth turning surface and the rough turning surface were observed by metallographic microscope and 3D profilometer, and the mechanism of the defects on the turning surface was discussed. The result shows: the quality of ultra-precision turning surface of PVD ZnSe was restricted by the grain size and the distribution of the grain which could easily cause the variegated macula at the grain size, rising the spindle speed, reducing the feed rate and reducing the cut depth could make the quality of ultra-precision turning surface better and reduce the roughness Ra value lower, the roughness Ra value of the smooth turning surface was reached 3~4nm which is enough to the infrared optical image systems currently by using the optimization of parameters.

The aspherical mirror surface quality testing by using compensation null lens in interferometer is described in this paper. For 310mm, f/0.5 hyperboloid mirror microcrystalline components, based on the theory of aberration compensation, a kind of null lens system which is composed of three pieces of spherical lens is developed. A certain amount of spherical aberration is introduced to the null lens for compensating the deviation of aspheric surface in a normal direction. The design result shows that the primary aberration and the senior aberration are balanced well, the MTF is closed to the diffraction limit and the residual wave aberration (RMS) is less than 0.004λ (λ=0.6328μm). Every indicators of the system meets the requirements of high precision detection of null lens system design. In this paper, the errors caused by the manufacturing, testing and assembling of the null lens system are analyzed. Those errors can be divided into the symmetric error and the asymmetric error. Using the correction method, the influence of the asymmetric error is minimized which seemed bigger than the asymmetric one. Finally, analysis results show that the total residual wave aberration of the system is less than 0.0072λ, which satisfies the requirement of aspheric testing. This null lens system has been applied to aspheric processing.

We discuss the depth of subsurface damage (SSD) on different processing conditions. Considering different conditions would produce different depths of SSD, this article seriously studies the depth influenced by different sizes of abrasive particles and different grinding discs. Then the depth of SSD would be detected via Three-Coordinate Measuring Machine (CMM) after traditional polishing. The target of this research is to provide some basic references for the choice of the glass-ceramics grinding machining process.

In the process of machining, the glass ceramic is easy to crack and damage, etc. And the residual stress in the machined surface may cause the crack to different extent in the later stage. Some may even affect the performance of the product. The residual stress of rotary ultrasonic drilling and mechanical processing is compared in different machining parameters (spindle speed, feed rate). The effects of processing parameters and methods are researched, in order to reduce the residual stress in the mechanical processing of glass ceramic, and provide guidance for the actual processing.

As a practical engineering device, laser gyro has replaced other types of gyro and become the dominant product of inertial navigation devices, and the mirror substrate is the key part for successful development of laser gyro. Normally, the mirror must have a high reflectivity, for example 99.99% or more, but the premise is that the super smooth surface with the order of Å must be fabricated first 1. In the process of super smooth surface, grinding procedure is a very important step; its quality determines the subsurface damage depth of the mirror. In this paper, based on optical quartz glass as the study object, three different size abrasives are used to grind the blank respectively; then the particle size distribution, surface roughness and microstructure are tested; finally, angle polishing method to measure subsurface damage depth is adopted. Some reasonable theory parameters are obtained through analysis of the test data, also having certain significance for practice.

We present a fast , easy and real-time method for measuring the laser beam quality factor, M² , using a spatial light modulator(SLM). We import computer-generated holograms into the spatial light modulator. Then the laser beams are reflected by the SLM and transfer through a fourier transform lens, composed into different kinds of modes which are received by a CCD. The M² value can be obtained by analyzing and calculating the modal weighting coefficients of different modes. In this paper, two different kinds of softwares , Matlab and VirtualLab, are used to implement the numerical simulations of the experiment process, so that the feasibility of the algorithm can be proved. In the end, we set up the experimental platform and implement the experiments with measuring laser beam quality factor, M2 , using a he-ne laser as the light source. The comparison with the theoretical value and the simulative value proves the reliability of the experiments.

The stress polishing is a kind of large-diameter aspheric machining technology with high efficiency. This paper focuses on the principle, application in the processing of large aspheric mirror, and the domestic and foreign research status of stress polishing, aimed at the problem of insufficient precision of mirror surface deformation calculated by some traditional theories and the problem that the output precision and stability of the support device in stress polishing cannot meet the requirements. The improvement methods from these three aspects are put forward, the characterization method of mirror’s elastic deformation in stress polishing, the deformation theory of influence function and the calculation of correction force, the design of actuator’s mechanical structure. These improve the precision of stress polishing and provide theoretical basis for the further application of stress polishing in large-diameter aspheric machining.

Chalcogenide glass is widely used in infrared area for its cheap and good performance of infrared transmittance. Compare with the traditional material signal crystal germanium, zinc sulfide, zinc selenide etc. Chalcogenide glass is suit for precision molding for the low soften temperature which is suit for large mass industry production. And precision glass molding(PGM) is a kind of technology involving the molding machine, mold material, the glass, molding parameters etc. So the researches on the forming characteristic of precision glass molding are necessary. In this paper, the FEM simulation is used to assist research of the forming characteristic, especially the friction coefficient effect on the forming. At the last the surface profile compensation and micro-replication of molding is discussed.

Computer Controlled Optical Surfacing (CCOS) is an important technology for manufacturing optical aspheric mirrors. Edge effect of small tool manufacturing restricts the machining precision and efficiency of CCOS technology. Edge effect is mainly caused by the polish tool cannot move to the very edge of workpiece and the change of pressure distribution when the tool move to the edge of workpiece. This article corrects the rolled edge effect of CCOS by different dimensions of polishing tool combination process and incorporated with the locality residual error trace contour path planning. Provide feasibility for the rolled edge by different dimensions of polishing tool combination process.

With the development of infrared optical systems in military and civil areas, chalcogenide glass aspherical lens possess some advantages, such as large infrared transmission, good thermal stability performance and image quality. Aspherical lens using chalcogenide glass can satisfy the requirements of modern infrared optical systems. Therefore, precision manufacturing of chalcogenide glass aspheric has received more and more attention. The molding technology of chalcogenide glass aspheric has become a research hotspot, because it can achieve mass and low cost manufacturing. The article of molding technology is focusing on a kind of chalcogenide glass aspherical lens. We report on design and fabrication of the mold that through simulation analysis of molding. Finally, through molding test, the fabrication of mold’s surface and parameters of molding has been optimized, ensuring the indicators of chalcogenide glass aspherical lens meet the requirements.

With the process test for the choice of materials, the test materials and the molds, the abrasives, the temperature and the different machining process monitoring parameters of the polishing machine, the process method and the quality control technology were figured out for the Φ130 sapphire window element with long distance and high resolution (hereinafter referred to as window element), meantime, the optimum process condition was determined to machine the element. The results were that the high resolution imaging window was processed with the surface roughness R_a of 0.639nm, the transmission distortion of λ/10 (λ=632.8nm), the parallel error of 5″, the resolution of 1.47″ and the focal length of 5 km, which can satisfy the imaging requirements better for the military photoelectric device for sapphire window with long distance and high resolution.

High precision aspheric surface can be obtained conveniently by using single point diamond turning technology, liquidmagnetic polishing technology and ion beam polishing technology, but the costs of manufacturing is too enormous to be widely used. In fact, in the field of optical processing, the most commonly used technical solution is still making a best fit sphere firstly compared with aspheric equation, and then remove the material on the glass to correct the error between aspheric and best fit sphere by precision grinding and precision polishing. The resolving of the best-fit sphere and the material removal, however, is a very important problem during the fabrications. The two dimensional maps of surface error between the best fit sphere and the corresponding aspheric surface shows W shaped which has the maximum removal at the center and the edge of the workpeace and gradually reduces to zero at the 70.7 percent of the diameter. In the process of deterministic optical manufacturing, the edge effect will arise because of the change of machining conditions when polishing tool locates in edge area, which will lower the surface accuracy of workpiece and debase machining efficiency. W shaped error distribution and the edge effect will make it difficult to remove the error on the edge of the workpiece. Aiming at the situation, an algorithm available for control of edge effect is proposed. Considering the requirement of minimum material removal and the control of edge effect, the radius of the anti-edge effect sphere is calculated by programming. The advantage of the algorithm is shown by the comparison of results derived from new algorithm and empirical equation. At the same time, the application in the off-axis asphere fabrications also proves the correctness of the algorithm. This algorithm is very helpful for the theory and practice of the fabrications of off-axis asphere.

In conventional continuous polishing process, the surface shape of work-piece was measured by an optical plane template after being placed in such environment with constant temperature for 1 to 2 hours. During this period, uncertain influence may occur on the polishing pad due to the change of system state. Meanwhile, the regular off-line testing may cause re-processing. In this paper, a new method about on-line monitoring surface shape of optical elements is proposed by the theory of run sphere, and the change in curvature radius of the work-piece which lead to its radial tilt angle change. The change in work-piece surface shape indirectly obtain by the correction plate small angle with respect to the horizontal, and the angle were detected on line by the high-precision goniometer with the resolution 0.04 ''. According to theoretical calculations, the diameter of 200mm precision work-piece PV value up to 0.02λ (λ = 632.8nm). The fused quartz glass was measured by above method. The test results showed that the surface accuracy and processing efficiency were significantly promoted, and also improving the controllability of surface shape of work-piece based on this method.

Large angle wedge parts were widely used in the optical system that was used for achieving a wide range of scanning. Due to the parts having the characteristic of large difference in the thickness of both ends and high density, the accuracy of the wedge angle was hard to ensure to reach second level in optical processing. Generally, wedge mirror angle was measured by contact comparison method which was easy to damage the surface. In view of the existence of two practical problems, in this paper, based on theoretical analysis, by taking three key measures that were the accurate positioning for the central position of the large angle wedge part, the accuracy control of angle precision machined of wedge mirror and fast and non destructive laser assisted absolute measurement of large angle wedge, the qualified rate of parts were increased to 100%, a feasible, controllable and efficient process route for large angle infrared wedge parts was found out.

The optical parallelism is an important indicators of isosceles prism. However, it cannot be directly measured in the processing process, and it is measured when the small surface is coated with silver film, which results in low processing rate. By analyzing the principles of the first optical parallelism and the second optical parallelism, this paper provides a new processing and detection method for isosceles prism. The good verticality between the three working face for isosceles prism and a side face can ensure the second optical parallelism. The small difference of 67.5°can ensure the first optical parallelism. By changing the position of the incident light when testing, the number of reflections can be reduced from seven to three. The reflection principle deduces the formula: θII(7)=2.4θII(3)，which to improve the machining accuracy and avoid the surface imperfections in detection. By using this process, precision and productivity can be effectively improved, the complexity of the process is reduced, and the qualification of isosceles prism has been improved.

Most of the spherical shell of the photoelectric multifunctional instrument was designed as multi optical channel mode to adapt to the different band of the sensor, there were mainly TV, laser and infrared channels. Without affecting the optical diameter, wind resistance and pneumatic performance of the optical system, the overall layout of the spherical shell was optimized to save space and reduce weight. Most of the shape of the optical windows were special-shaped, each optical window directly participated in the high resolution imaging of the corresponding sensor system, and the optical axis parallelism of each sensor needed to meet the accuracy requirement of 0.05mrad.Therefore precision machining of optical window parts quality will directly affect the photoelectric system's pointing accuracy and interchangeability. Processing and testing of the TV and laser window had been very mature, while because of the special nature of the material, transparent and high refractive rate, infrared window parts had the problems of imaging quality and the control of the minimum focal length and second level parallel in the processing. Based on years of practical experience, this paper was focused on how to control the shape and parallel difference precision of infrared window parts in the processing. Single pass rate was increased from 40% to more than 95%, the processing efficiency was significantly enhanced, an effective solution to the bottleneck problem in the actual processing, which effectively solve the bottlenecks in research and production.

A novel method is proposed to improve contour accuracy of three-dimensional (3D) microstructure in real-time maskless lithography technique based on a digital micro-mirror device (DMD). In this paper, firstly according to the study of theory and experiment on exposure doses and exposure thickness relation, the spatial distribution of the photo-resist exposure doses was derived, which could predict the resulting 3D contour. Secondly, an equal-arc slicing strategy was adopted, in which arc lengths between adjacent slicing point are kept constant while layer heights become variant. And an equal-arc-mean slicing strategy that takes the average of adjacent layers height was also proposed to further optimize the quality of contour and reduce the contour error on the basis of the equal-arc slicing. Finally, to estimate the validity of the method and as a study case, aspheric micro-lens array were fabricated with proposed method in experiments. Our results showed that the proposed method is feasible for improving and enhancing the 3D microstructure contour accuracy and smoothness.

Due the annular polishing technology for planar optical components do not have the sharp selectivity, annular polishing technology is a very import process to fabricate irregular planar elements which with high precision surface shape and low surface roughness. According to the characteristics of annular polishing, the zns asymmetric plane window annular polishing process and key technical parameters control was researched. In this paper, one pair of asymmetric planar ZnS window parts were machined which diagonal length is 147mm, through technology experiments, obtained process test samples. The surface figures of the plane zns window are measured by a Zygo interferometer and the reflect wavefront P-V value is better than 1.5λ, the reflect wavefront local error rms value is better than 0.05λ (λ=632.8nm). Experiments results demonstrate the effectiveness of annular processing technology was used to manufacture zinc sulfide asymmetric shape plane window.

In the last few years, synchrospeed polishing has been widely employed in the mass spherical optical surface manufacturing process with the development of the optical polishing technology and equipment. However, the edge collapse appears easily in the synchrospeed polishing process because of the high edge pressure. The principle of the spherical surface synchrospeed polishing process is introduced, and the motion mathematical model is developed. A new multi-mode polishing method which utilizes a big polishing tool combined with a small one to correction on the edge collapse is proposed. A sphere that aperture is 110mm and radiuses is 238mm is polished via the mew method. The collapse radio is decease from 20% to 10%, and the D-value of collapse is deceased from 459.29nm to 68.74nm before and after the correct polishing process. The surface figure accuracy RMS is improved from 90.97nm to 15.97nm accordingly. The experiment proved that the correction method is very useful to correct the edge collapse.

A 520mm aperture SiC flat mirror was manufactured up to RMS accuracy of 10.8nm in 50 days. Through the analysis of SiC material removal principle during full aperture polishing, we chose the appropriate parameters of polishing in full aperture polishing process and quickly made the surface error convergence to RMS value 100nm, then we took the step to small tool polishing, the adjustment of the remove function in this process was taken in order to coordinate the hard material’s properties, the efficiency in PV and RMS convergence was presented according to the experimental results. After four week’s polishing ,the RMS value successfully reduced to 10.8 nm and reached the technical requirements of this large flat SiC mirror.

As the core component of optical system of Roll-Pitch seekers, the L-form ZnSe deflect prism is directly affecting the imaging quality of optical. For L-form defect prism’s complex polyhedron plane structure and the feature of CVD ZnSe polycrystalline material, this paper propose one processing of single point diamond fly-cutting, analyze the transformation calculation method of each plane’s coordinate. A kind of special clamp which ensure that all working surface of prism could be cut by once clamping is designed. Base on parameters of turning for CVD ZnSe , the deflect prisms are been processed, the measure result of angle error is below 12", the surface error (rms) reach 0.022λ, which satisfies the demand of manufacturing accuracy. It provide effective processing methods for optical parts with complex space.

Subaperture stitching method is used for optics surface defects detection by defects imaging. Stitching based on position is efficient while stitching error induced by the error of the scanning mechanism may cause defects dislocation. According to the stitching error analysis of spherical optics defects, a method based on Monte Carlo simulation is proposed in this paper. Firs t the volumetric error model is established based on mult ibody system theory. On this basis, the stitching error model is established and applied to compute error by Monte Carlo simulation. Analyze error and then define the tolerance of the scanning mechanism to limit stitching error. Simulation results of an optical element whose diameter is 60mm show that the scanning mechanism should satisfy that the positioning accuracy and straightness in Y direction of X axis, the run-out errors in X and Y direction of B axis, and the verticality between X and Y axis are less than 1μm, the run-out errors in X and Y direction of C axis are less than 2.8μ m, the run-out errors of B and C are less than 4.6μm. Under such conditions, the stitching error will be less than 10μm.

In recent years, a novel optical zooming technique has been paid much attention. With the help of optical leveraging effect, it is possible to alter the system focal length dramatically without moving elements involved in by only changing the curvature radius of VCM (variable curvature mirror) slightly. With no doubt, VCM is the key to realize non-moving element optical zooming and it has to provide large enough saggitus variation while still maintaining the high surface figure accuracy to ensure high quality imaging. In our previously published paper, an annular force based VCM has been designed, fabricated and tested. Experiments demonstrate that with the aperture of 100mm and thickness of 2mm, the VCM could generate a large saggitus variation exceeding 30λ (λ=632.8nm). However, the optical quality degrades very fast and this makes such a VCM unsuitable for optical imaging in visible band. Therefore in this manuscript, a multipoint actuation array, which is composed of totally 49 piezoelectric actuators, is embedded into the annular structure to aim to correct the surface figure distortion caused by large saggitus variation. The new structure model has been designed and numerical simulation indicates that the surface figure distortion could be well corrected as long as the degraded surface figure accuracy is better than 1.8λ (λ=632.8nm) (RMS). Based on this, a new prototype VCM is being fabricated and intermediate results are reported here.

Smoothing is a convenient and efficient way to restrain middle spatial frequency (MSF) errors. Based on the experience, lap diameter, rotation speed, lap pressure and the hardness of pitch layer are important to correcting MSF errors. Therefore, nine groups of experiments are designed with the orthogonal method to confirm the significance of the above parameters. Based on the Zhang’s model, PV (Peak and Valley) and RMS (Root Mean Square) versus processing cycles are analyzed before and after smoothing. At the same time, the smoothing limit and smoothing rate for different parameters to correct MSF errors are analyzed. Combined with the deviation analysis, we distinguish between dominant and subordinate parameters, and find out the optimal combination and law of various parameters, so as to guide the further research and fabrication.

The advantage of Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymer (CFRP) is obvious as a common space material for low density, low thermal expansion coefficient and high specific stiffness characteristics, it is the ideal material choice for space optical reflector. Mirror structure with honeycomb can achieve high rates of lightweight, as well as high specific stiffness. For Φ300mm CFRP mirror, accounting of the actual process properties of CFRP, mirror panels laminated based on thermal stability design, honeycomb fabricated using one innovative inlaying-grafting design method. Finally, lightweight structure design of the CFRP primary mirror completed, the thermal stability result of the Φ300mm CFRP mirror achieved is 10nm°C.

A novel visual navigation method based on grating projection stereo vision for mobile robot in dark environment is proposed. This method is combining with grating projection profilometry of plane structured light and stereo vision technology. It can be employed to realize obstacle detection, SLAM (Simultaneous Localization and Mapping) and vision odometry for mobile robot navigation in dark environment without the image match in stereo vision technology and without phase unwrapping in the grating projection profilometry. First, we research the new vision sensor theoretical, and build geometric and mathematical model of the grating projection stereo vision system. Second, the computational method of 3D coordinates of space obstacle in the robot’s visual field is studied, and then the obstacles in the field is located accurately. The result of simulation experiment and analysis shows that this research is useful to break the current autonomous navigation problem of mobile robot in dark environment, and to provide the theoretical basis and exploration direction for further study on navigation of space exploring robot in the dark and without GPS environment.

Due to low density, high stiffness, low thermal expansion coefficient, duplicate molding, etc., carbon fiber reinforced polymer (CFRP) is one of the potential materials of the optical mirror. The process developed for Φ300mm high precision CFRP mirror described in this paper. A placement tool used to improve laying accuracy up to ± 0.1°.A special reinforced cell structure designed to increase rigidity and thermal stability. Optical replication process adopted for surface modification of the carbon fiber composite mirror blank. Finally, surface accuracy RMS of Φ300mm CFRP mirror is 0.22μm, surface roughness Ra is about 2nm, and the thermal stability can achieve 13nm /°C from the test result. The research content is of some reference value in the infrared as well as visible light applications.

During the machining of large aperture lightweight space mirror, the mirror figure consistency between ground test and space mission is a problem. In order to effectively control the supporting deformation effect on test results in gravity environment, in view of a 1.2-m space mirror with back blind holes, a supporting method for optical axis horizontal test is proposed, with this method, mirror under test is positioned by three center hole surfaces and supported by six external hole surfaces. The effect of deformation caused by different supporting force value, area and position is analyzed by finite element method, the simulation results show that this supporting method can control the mirror supporting deformation within PV0.035λ rms0.005λ. The actual supporting system uses soft expansion mandrel to control the mirror position and pneumatic lever to realize the floating support. In order to ensure that the support force can evenly distribute on the contact surface, a pressure mapping system is adopted to measure the interface pressure between the mirror blind holes and the soft supporting pads for the first time. This method can meet the test requirements of rms=1/40λ mirror and provides a technical support for high precision test of large aperture space mirror with back blind holes.

Primary mirror is an important component of collimator. The surface figure error of primary mirror is a critical factor affecting the imaging quality of collimator. Besides, the support system of primary mirror of collimator must be steady, while collimator need be moved safely as an elementary optical measuring tool. The support system of the primary mirror is composed of axial support and lateral support. Due to the axis of the primary mirror is horizontal when collimator working, the lateral support of the primary mirror has a far greater impact on the figure error of the primary mirror. In this paper, static structure analysis with finite element method is carried out for a 5m collimator primary mirror with V-block support under gravity load. With the analysis, the relationship between the structure parameters in primary mirror V-block support and the deformation of the primary mirror is built. With this relationship, the optimization parameters are found out to reduce the gravity deformation of the primary mirror.

We present a model to describe the mechanism of laser induced electronic damage in optical coatings. Different from the classical laser damage models, the electron tunneling effect is taken into account in our model. The diffusion of free electron in the conduction band is enhanced if free electron tunnel effect happens in the optical coatings. Under some specific circumstance, the electron tunneling effect will make a great impact on the laser induced damage properties of the optical coatings. Under radiation of different duration and different power intensity lasers, the influence of free electron tunnel to the laser induced damage threshold is also different. Based on the calculation results, the tunnel effect can influence the laser induced damage properties of optical coating system at nanosecond and picosecond regime. In the femtosecond regime, the influence of the tunnel effect can be neglected.

Ta₂O₅/SiO₂ mixture films with different composition ratios deposited by ion-beam sputtering were investigated. The different refractive indexes with different composition ratios were measured by Spectroscopic Ellipsometry. The relations between residual stress and structural properties were studied by X-ray diffraction (XRD) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM). It was found that the high compressive stress observed in SiO₂ films (n=1.65-2.0, Ref. λ=500nm) was reduced significantly by mixing a properly amount of Ta₂O₅ (σ_Ta2O5=-234MPa<σ_SiO2=-510MPa). Through analyzing microstructure properties and optical properties of Ta₂O₅/SiO₂ mixture films, we found that the residual compressive stress was only related with the intrinsic stress σ_intr and the extrinsic stress σ_ext. A model of stress evolution has been proposed to illustrate the mechanism of stress reduction . The reduction of compressive stress was due to less lattice mismatch and more vacancies. Moreover, the scanning electron microscopy (SEM) result showed that the surface quality of SiO₂ film was improved by mixing a relatively amount of Ta₂O₅ (n=1.85, Ref. λ=500nm).

Up to now, traditional materials, such as glass, metal and SiC ceramic, gradually begin to be unsatisfied development of the future mirrors. Designable carbon fiber reinforced composites became optimized material for large aperture lightweight mirrors. Carbon/carbon composites exhibit low thermal expansion and no moisture-absorption expansion problem, therefore, they get particular attention in the space reflector field. Ni was always employed as optical layer in the mirror, however, the coating behaved poor bond with substrate and often peeled off during optical processing. In order to solve this problem, slight oxidation was carried on the C/C composites before Ni plated. The Ni coating exhibited stronger coherence and better finish performance. Finally, a 100mm diameter plane mirror was successful fabricated.

Gd₂O₃ thin films were deposited by Ion-beam sputtering (IBS) under the oxygen flow of 0 sccm～30 sccm. The structure and optical properties of the Gd₂O₃ optical films were investigated by Lambdar950 spectrophotometer, laser calorimetry and atomic force microscopy (AFM). When oxygen flow was less than 10 sccm, with the increase of oxygen flow, the transmittance of the films increased, at the same time absorptance and the surface roughness of the films decreased. While the flow was more than 10 sccm, with the increase of the flow rate, the surface roughness of the films increased, but the transmittance and absorptance did not show any apparent change. The results show that both the structure and optical properties are closely related to the flow of oxygen. XPS measurements demonstrated that when the oxygen flow increase from 0 sccm to 10 sccm, the defect oxygen decreases. But when the oxygen flow increase from 10 sccm to 30 sccm, the defect oxygen increase. The XPS spectra show that when the oxygen flow was 10 sccm, the defect oxygen was the least. Thus when the oxygen flow was 10 sccm, the structure and optical properties of the Gd₂O₃ optical films were the best.

Conventional used ceria polishing would induce both of Ce contaminants and subsurface damages, which mainly restricts the laser induced damage resistance of fused silica optics. To control the near surface defects, nanometer sized colloidal silica are used to polish fused silica optics after the normal ceria polishing process. Then the contaminant elements and subsurface damages of the polished samples were analyzed by secondary ion mass spectrometry and Nomarski microscopy. It reveals that ceria polishing would introduce lots of subsurface damages whereas colloidal silica polishing induces much fewer subsurface damages especially no fracture induced severe subsurface damages. The laser damage tests reveal that subsequent colloidal silica polishing of the ceria pre-polished samples could gradually eliminate the ceria polishing induced subsurface damages and lower the laser induced damage density accordingly with the increased polishing time. But unlike the damage density, only the severe subsurface damages are totally eliminated could the damage threshold be substantially improved. These results incline to indicate that the subsurface damages have great influence on the laser induced damage density and the fracture related severe subsurface damages will greatly restrict the damage threshold in polished optics.

This paper studied a manufacturing processing of optical surface with high precision in angel and surface. By theoretical analysis of the relationships between the angel precision and surface, the measurement conversion of the technical indicators, optical-cement method application, the optical-cement tooling design, the experiment has been finished successfully, the processing method has been verified, which can be also used in the manufacturing of the optical surface with similar high precision in angle and surface.

High efficiency machining of large precision optical surfaces is a challenging task for researchers and engineers worldwide. The higher form accuracy and lower subsurface damage helps to significantly reduce the cycle time for the following polishing process, save the cost of production, and provide a strong enabling technology to support the large telescope and laser energy fusion projects. In this paper, employing an Infeed Grinding (IG) mode with a rotary table and a cup wheel, a multi stage grinding process chain, as well as precision compensation technology, a Φ300mm diameter plano mirror is ground by the Schneider Surfacing Center SCG 600 that delivers a new level of quality and accuracy when grinding such large flats. Results show a PV form error of Pt<2 μm, the surface roughness Ra<30 nm and Rz<180 nm, with subsurface damage <20 μm, and a material removal rates of up to 383.2 mm3/s.

Laser gyro is the only one non-electromechanical high-precision inertial sensitive instruments in aircraft inertial guidance systems. Ultra high vacuum acquisition is a key segment during the manufacturing process of laser gyro. The surface cleanliness and integrity have decisive influence on the sealing performance of ultra-high vacuum. A cleaning technology for the optical surface of laser gyro cavity was found by experiment. Meanwhile, the analysis of the adsorption mechanism of contaminant on the laser gyro cavity surface and overview of common optical element cleaning technology were given. The result showed that the new cleaning technology improved the cleanliness of the cavity optical surface without any damage and provided a reliable solution for chronic leak of high precision laser gyro cavity.

With the development of the high speed cutting, the ultra-precision machining and ultrasonic vibration technique in processing hard and brittle material , the requirement of cutting tools is becoming higher and higher. As electroplated diamond tools have distinct advantages, such as high adaptability, high durability, long service life and good dimensional stability, the cutting tools are effective and extensive used in grinding hard and brittle materials. In this paper, the coating structure of electroplating diamond tool is described. The electroplating process flow is presented, and the influence of pretreatment on the machining quality is analyzed. Through the experimental research and summary, the reasonable formula of the electrolyte, the electroplating technologic parameters and the suitable sanding method were determined. Meanwhile, the drilling experiment on glass-ceramic shows that the electroplating process can effectively improve the cutting performance of diamond tools. It has laid a good foundation for further improving the quality and efficiency of the machining of hard and brittle materials.

Reaction-sintered silicon carbide (RS-SiC) has been widely used in space telescope systems for its excellent physical and mechanical properties. Thermally oxidation-assisted polishing is a practical machining method to obtain RS-SiC parts with high precision, and the research focus is optimization of process parameters, because there are bumpy structures on the oxidized RS-SiC. By atomic force microscopy (AFM) detection, the distributions of oxides on the oxidized RS-SiC sample are quantitative analyzed when the thermal oxidation time is 5min, 30min, and 60min, and the calculated average differences of oxide heights between the initial Si grains and SiC grains are 10.7nm, 25.1nm, and 35.2nm, respectively. Meanwhile, the volume expansion coefficient in oxidation of Si/SiC to SiO₂ is 2.257 and 2.194, respectively. Through theoretical derivation based on the Deal-Grove model, the numerical relationship between differences of oxide heights and thermal oxidation time is obtained. Combining with the material removal rate of oxide by ceria slurry in the abrasive polishing, the obtained surface quality can be precisely forecasted and controlled. The oxidized RS-SiC sample, when the oxidation time is 30min, is polished with different times to verify the theoretical analysis results. When the polishing times are 20min, 30min, and 40min, the obtained differences of oxide heights by the AFM detection are consistent with theoretical calculated results. Research on the optimal process parameters in thermally oxidation-assisted polishing of RS-SiC can improve the process level of RS-SiC sample and promote the application of SiC parts.

Light weighted multi-angle multi-surface mirror is made of glass-ceramic, with the structural characteristic of multicavity thin wall, high precision of surface figure and angle between surfaces, has very different processing technology with traditional solid mirror. Based on the 460mm×434mm×80mm multi-angle multi-surface mirror, glass combination manufacture method and relevant interferometry of angle measurement was designed. The process technology was studied, then the consistency of angle between surfaces and the influence on multi-cavity thin wall deformation of lateral surface and material of polishing pad on the surface figure processing were controlled. The model between the variation of angle and load was established, from which the hysteresis of angle variation was analyzed, then the prototype workpiece was finished. The difficult problem on synchronically controlling the surface angles and surface figure of the mirror, which has high center of gravity and multi-cavity thin wall, was solved. The lateral surface figure was controlled below λ/6 (PV, λ=632.8nm), and the perpendicularity of lateral surfaces were controlled below 5''.

The grinding and polishing of freeform surface by using Computer Controlled Optical Surfacing (CCOS) technology are discussed. Instead of using Computer Numeric Control (CNC) machine, a 6-axises industrial robot TX200 from Stäubli Co. Ltd. is used as the motion platform. In order to perform the movement that CCOS technology needs, the coordinate system of the robot in processing is reviewed and the offline programming method for robot is presented. The material removal experiments during grinding and polishing process on the robotic CCOS platform are been carried out. A rectangular toroid surface workpiece and a circular off-axis parabolic surface workpiece are being fabricated on the robotic CCOS platform, and the latest results will be discussed here.

Glass lightweight mirror can be made by Hot Isostatic Atmospheric Pressure (HIAP) casting method which melting small glass chunks into a mold that made lots of hexagon-shaped pockets in the back of the mirror. Alumina-silica refractory cores which used to form honeycomb mold can withstand over 950 degree Celsius temperature. Furnace temperature rises to 950 degree Celsius after H4 H-K9L chunks loaded into mold, holds this temperature over 2 hours and then drops to room temperature slowly. HIAP casting lightweight blank can used to form 1/60 λ RMS (λ=0.6328μm) mirror and this method can use to made big diameter lightweight blank.

In the processing of large aspheric mirror, uniform removal means the process of equal removal at the whole surface in grinding and rough polishing stage. It aims to remove the subsurface damage layer at forming and grinding stage. It also smoothes the surface for reducing even eliminating mid-and-high-frequency error on the mirror. The combined processing method is using different diameter of laps by spatial frequency error model of reasonable matching in fabrication of workpiece. In this paper, the uniform removal method of combination NC manipulator and the Computer Controlled Active Lap is used. From the ring removal function model, the processing of combined uniform removal is simulated and analyzed. Compared with the CCAL uniform removal processing, it can get the much better uniform removal effect.