The present paper considers the possibility of a system for environmental monitoring of film pollution in the Gorky reservoir. A combination of the well-known approachs for calculating the drift trajectories of passive particles on the sea surface with the data of remote sensing, which provides primary detection of a pollution spill in the scanned area is proposed. X-band digital coherent radar was the source of remote data. Based on this radar, an automated radar system is being developed for the automatic detection of film contaminants on the water surface. The results of tests of the algorithm for automatic detection of film pollutions based on field measurements are presented. The model component of the system is based on the results of measurements of current velocities and the physical dependence of the slick drift. As a result of comprehensive studies, the developed system has demonstrated operability for detecting and predicting the spread of film pollution in the Gorky reservoir.
The present paper is devoted to the development of a multisensory approach to hydrophysical measurements of the ocean surface layer. The combination of coherent acoustic sounding, coherent radar sounding, and optical stereo photography is considered. Each of the methods separately has several advantages, but it is not free from disadvantages. Coherent acoustic sounding, described by resonant scattering, has a large observation area but has a poor spatial resolution. Coherent radar sensing, also described by resonant scattering, has a smaller observation area but a higher spatial resolution. Both methods allow us to recover the velocity characteristics of scattering associated with the velocities of resonant scatterers. Using the relationship between sea surface elevations and orbital wave velocities, it is possible to determine the spatial spectra of wind waves in a wide range of wind wavelengths up to several meters. To determine the characteristics of shorter-scale wind waves, it is proposed to use data from optical stereo photography. As a calibration for the optical system, information on the elevation of the sea surface obtained from coherent acoustic and radar sounding data can be used. Thus, the spatial spectrum of wind waves can be reconstructed in the range of energy-carrying to gravitational-capillary waves. In addition to the spectral characteristics of waves, it is possible to determine the velocity of the near-surface flow by measuring the Doppler shift of acoustic and radar signals. High-resolution data obtained from stereo photography of the sea surface allow clarifying the relationship between the velocities of acoustic and radar scatterers and hydrometeorological parameters.
Analysis of possibilities of identification and characterization of marine processes using their signatures in radar and optical imagery of the sea surface is a very important problem of the ocean remote sensing which has not been solved yet completely by now. Marine slicks which are the areas of suppressed wind waves can be recorded by different sensors and can be indicators of internal waves, non uniform currents, atmospheric convective cells, etc. Field studies including those simultaneous and co-located with remote observations is the most perspective way to the problem solution. An expedition of the Institute of Applied Physics RAS was organized to study the nature of slick bands and its dynamics in the field of various subsurface processes. Field experiments were carried out in the coastal zone of the Black sea from the Oceanographic Platform of Marine Hydrophysical Institute RAS and from the shore. The structure of the currents in the studied area is characterized by significant heterogeneity, so we were able to register different slick structures in the flow field and wind and the slick dynamics. In some experiments, marine slicks were recorded simultaneously in satellite Sentinel images. Observations of surface manifestations of internal waves were carried out using a digital radar station MRS-1000 and multi-frequency radar complex of IAP RAS. At the same time the measurements of currents in the water column were carried out using the ADCP WH Monitor 1200 kHz, wind speed and direction at a height of 30 meters using WindSonic acoustic anemometer. During the passage of internal waves a system of slick bands with a reduced intensity of small-scale waves were observed. Slick bands were observed mainly over the rear slopes of the internal waves; the data from the accompanying measurements showed that the phase velocity was close to the surface current velocity. Theoretical analysis has shown that in this case the convergent zones, where surfactants are accumulated were formed at the rear slopes of the internal waves. This mechanism of slick formation was predicted earlier theoretically and then was modeled in laboratory experiment.
The new mathematical models of the statistical moments of the Snell's window image are proposed. These models are based on the use of a binary representation of the Snell’s window image and a Gaussian slope distribution function. It leads to express statistical image moments in terms of the error function. Using its well-known properties, it was possible to establish analytical relationships between the AI differentiated by the zenith angle with the slope variance, as well as between the twice-differentiated ACF of the image with the ACF of the surface slopes. The obtained expressions can already be used in practice to solve inverse problems by a numerical method. At the same time, the results of numerical simulation show that the Snell’s window image is an object very sensitive to changes of the roughness of the sea surface. With an increase of wind speed or in the presence of a surfactant film, the number and sizes of patterns near the Snell’s window border significantly change that manifests in the statistical moments of the image. This result indicate that the presented method can be used to study the variability of the spectra of wind waves in the field of near-surface hydrophysical processes, as well as in the presence of surface pollutants.
This paper reveals the theoretical possibilities of using the underwater solar path images (USPI) to retrieve the wind wave spectra, including situation when surfactant film is on the sea surface. It contains a theoretical model of USPI, an algorithm for retrieval wave spectra through statistical moments of USPI, and results of testing proposed algorithm using numerical simulation. The last one was based on the Elfouhaily wind wave spectrum and the Ermakov model of thin surfactant film. The use of modeling made it possible to establish the main difficulties in achieving a solution of challenging, and also to offer an alternative method. The obtained results confirm the efficiency of the developed method.
The paper considers the results of a promising method for remote determination of parameters of dynamic processes in the ocean – coherent ocean radar sensing. This work proposes a methodology for determining the speed and direction of the sea surface current and wind waves spectrum by measurements of X-band Doppler radar. Based on the Doppler Effect, it is possible to measure the orbital velocities of wind waves on the sea surface, the velocities of breaking waves, the velocities of the sea surface current and the speed parameters of other oceanic dynamic processes. Using the basic expressions of the wave theory of free waves on water, it is possible to restore the heights of wind waves without additional calibration. Theoretical numerical simulation of the Doppler velocity of the Bragg waves in the field of wind waves and currents were carried out. The simulation used a two-scale model of microwave scattering on an wavy water surface, taking into account the shading of the sea surface by wave crests. A correlation analysis of the surface current, calculated through hydro meteorological parameters and Doppler radar panoramas, showed a maximum correlation coefficient for a velocity value is about 0.88 with a root mean square error of 8 cm/s, and for a direction is about 0.98 with a root mean square error of 14 degrees. The work shows the possibility to recover wind wave spectra from the data on the Doppler shift of microwave radio waves. Features that are not described by the two-scale model are found and discuss.
The present paper reveals the practical possibilities of the solar path observation from underwater as an instrument for remote sensing of wavy surface. Paper includes: a theoretical model of underwater solar path image and its statistical moments; algorithm for solving inverse problem; description of full-scale experiment and results of slope frequency spectrum retrieval. Presented spectra were obtained for random selected data from continues field measurements in the coastal zone of the Black Sea. On their example it was shown that spectra obtained by image processing and wave gauge data are close over the entire frequency interval. At frequencies corresponding to capillary waves, where wave gauge not applicable, underwater vision system still continues to measure wave spectrum. Obtained results complement previously published results of retrieval wind wave characteristics and water optical properties using underwater solar path images, thereby confirming advantages of applying underwater optical systems for remote sensing of different waters.
The possibilities of the definition of physical characteristics of organic films on the water surface, including oil thickness estimation, were studied in laboratory conditions based on the novel opto-acoustical approach. It was shown that the continuous infrared irradiation of film on the water surface leads to the generation of ultrasonic wave with frequencies of the order of several kHz which is the result of local heating of subsurface layer of water. The preliminary results regarding a relation between physical characteristics of surfactant films and the characteristics of acoustic wave are presented. A promising approach of remote sensing definition of surfactant films characteristics in real sea conditions was proposed on the base of these results. The development of this approach will contribute to the development of modern systems of strategic remote sensing of the ocean and inland basin.
The work is devoted to the experimental study of Doppler velocity in artificial surfactant films on the sea surface. Such
films simulate the oil spills. The paper develops a method of remote detection of oil spill pollution on the water surface.
The method is based on a joint analysis of amplitude and velocity radar images of the water surface. It is shown that the
surfactant films lead to a significant change in the Doppler velocity, which can be used to increase the detection
probability of pollution on the sea surface. A statistical analysis of the two-dimensional distribution of RCS and Doppler
velocity in artificial surfactants films and pure water in a wide range of weather conditions is performed. It is
demonstrated that the difference between the measured Doppler velocity in the upwind direction and the phase velocity
of the Bragg waves corresponds with the slick drift velocity.
Evolution of film slicks on the sea surface is a very important problem, particularly in application to monitoring of pollution transport in the ocean and in the coastal areas. The geometry of film slicks is determined by physical characteristics of surface films and by environmental parameters. At present our understanding of the role of geophysical processes controlling the slick dynamics is still insufficient. This is partly because of the luck of systematic studies of film slicks in controlled experiments. A perspective approach to the problem solution is organization of special experiments with artificial slicks formed by films with known characteristics. Previously we reported on the results of some experiments and proposed a simple model of spreading of surfactant spills accounting for the surface stresses induced by wind waves. In this paper new results of experiments on oil spill evolution are presented and physical mechanisms of this evolution are discussed. The experiments were conducted on the Gorky Water Reservoir. Surfactants (oleic acid) were spilled out from a motor boat. The slick shape was studied using aerial photography and a methodology of contouring slicks using a motor boat with a GPS receiver onboard. It is obtained that the cross-wind slick size grows quite slowly with time being almost independent on wind, while the growth rate of the along-wind axis increases rapidly with wind velocity. To explain the observed effects a mechanism of “oil overflow” is hypothesized. It describes the movement of surfactants from an upwind slick side to its downwind side due to the action of along-wind wave induced stresses. This process should contribute also to some additional drift velocity of slicks. The conclusion about the drift is consistent with a hypothesis, discussed in the literature that oil slicks move faster than the surrounding water surface microlayer.
The presented paper is aimed at the possibilities of detecting surfactants fluorescence on a water surface using a
portable UV diode light source and spectrometer. Under controlled conditions of film thickness, a series of laboratory
fluorescence measurements for some surfactant most commonly found in inland waters like crude oil and diesel were
performed. Obtained fluorescence spectra were registered for thin films with a thickness from 0.6 to 33 μm. Estimates of
the fluorescence intensity in relation to film thickness are obtained.
The article discusses the results of theoretical and experimental studies of Doppler velocity on the sea surface. Doppler
velocity is measured by radar sensing at moderate and low grazing angles. The experiments were performed using
coherent X-band and Ka-band panoramic digital radars operating with the horizontal polarization for transmission and
reception. These radars have high spatial resolution. An algorithm for reconstructing Doppler velocities is proposed and
estimates of the fluctuation sensitivity of the method are carried out. The method is applied to the conditions of the fetch-limited
wind wave growth, which is typical for enclosed waters and the sea nearshore, where the dominant wavelength is
of the order of ten meters. Based on the two-scale model, the dependences of the Doppler velocity on the parameters of
the ocean-atmosphere interface are considered. The effect of shadowing by the crests of wind waves on the magnitude of
the Doppler velocity at low grazing angles is discussed. The manifestation of the orbital velocity of wind waves is
demonstrated.
River confluence is a ubiquitous phenomenon which plays an important role in river dynamics, mixing processes, pollution transport etc. It can be often visually observed that two converging rivers continue to flow as two parallel weakly mixing streams separated by a relatively thin transition region – a mixing zone (MZ), which can reach out for some distance downstream the junction apex. A typical example of a river confluence is the merging of the Volga and Oka rivers (Russia). This paper presents some new results on the Volga/Oka rivers confluence based on both ‘in situ’ measurements of hydrological characteristics in the MZ and on satellite observations. During the ‘in situ’ measurements a large set of data regarding velocity fields, chlorophyll-a concentration, water temperature, turbidity, parameters of organic surface films etc. was obtained. It is found that significant differences between the hydrological characteristics of the Volga and Oka flows are observed at sufficiently large distances downstream the junction apex (about 10 river widths or more); and the mixing zone remains quite narrow. Film sampling and further analysis of the surfactant films in the MZ were carried out. It is shown that the surface tension decreases and the film elasticity grows in the foam/slick bands separating the Volga and Oka flows thus indicating the increased concentration of surfactants in the bands. Satellite images of the Volga-Oka MZ are collected indicating that the confluence area is clearly seen in satellite optical imagery (MSI Sentinel-2 satellite) due to strong difference in color between the flows. The radar imagery shows the mixing zone in the form of a slick/foam band (SAR Sentinel-1) which manifests on the water surface due to enhanced damping of short wind waves.
This paper is devoted to the study of the possibilities of restoring the concentrations of chlorophyll-a (Chl-a) and total
suspended matter (TSM) in fresh waterbodies using the images of Sentinel-2 / MSI of the Gorky reservoir as an
example, validated via the high-resolution ground-truth data obtained by fluorescence lidar UFL. This water area in the
period of intense chromaticity of cyanobacteria is distinguished by their completely heterogeneous spatial-temporal
distribution with scales of patchiness from several tens of meters and high temporal variability. For this reason, direct
methods of “spot” measurements in place on water samples in a small part of the reservoir for 3 hours relative to the
satellite’s span do not provide us with reliable and statistically proved data. In this regard, the work proposed an original
method of high-performance sub-satellite synchronous measurements of the brightness of the water column,
concentrations of Chl-a and TSM with a fluorescent lidar onboard a high-speed vessel. This technique is provided with a
spatial (8 m) and a temporary (1 s) resolution. Based on this, 4 independent regional models for the recovery of Chl-a
concentrations, as well as TSM were developed based on in-situ measurements of the brightness of the water surface, or
from Sentinel-2 / MSI images. To ensure the possibility of using satellite images, the analysis of atmospheric correction
algorithms was performed and the best one was determined. The proposed models can be used for regular environmental
monitoring of the Gorky Reservoir according to the in-situ ship measurements of the brightness of the water surface or
from Sentinel-2 / MSI images. When using the proposed methodology for lidar high-performance collection of sub-satellite
data, the developed models can be adapted for limnological monitoring of other freshwater bodies with high
spatial and temporal variability of the optical properties of water.
The first results in development of method for satellite monitoring of the bio-optical water properties of Gorky reservoir as an example of an inland freshwater eutrophic water body are presented. The method is based on the semi-analytical algorithm for the Black Sea and uses the data on the reflectance coefficient of the water column, allowing to calculate the concentrations of optically significant substances (phytoplankton pigments, dissolved organic matter and mineral suspended matter). Field measurements of spectral reflectance were carried out in years 2016 – 2017. Spatial variability of reflectance and factors affecting it were analyzed. Reflectance model used in Black Sea algorithm was adapted to biooptical features of the studied water body. Model calculations of pigment concentration were compared with chlorophyll a content data obtained from water samples analyses. The pigment absorption spectra were calculated, showing the spectral features characteristic of photosynthetic pigments. The ways of further research for algorithm development are determined.
The present work is shown results of estimating the absorption coefficient of water by underwater sky image (Snell’s window image). This paper presents theoretical model of the Snell’s window image, the algorithm to restore the absorption coefficient of water through the static moments of image, the methodology of performing full-scale measurements and processing obtained data and result of testing offered method on the basis of images obtained in fresh internal eutrophic waters of the Gorky reservoir on the Volga River, characterizing by high concentrations of dissolved organic matter and blue-green algae bloom.
An experimental study of statistical characteristics of fluorescent lidar echo signals and spatial distribution of optically active components in waters of the Gorky reservoir at 40 x 10 km experimental area covering the floodplain, channel and estuaries of inflowing rivers was performed. The measurements were carried out during 4 days from 1 August to 4 August 2017 and from 20 September to 22 September 2018 at the stations and continuously along the motorboat track with the help of fluorescent lidar UFL-9 which allows to restore concentrations of chlorophyll a, colored organic matter and total suspended matter in the upper water layer with thickness of about 0.2 to 1.0 m for eutrophic waters. This paper presents maps of their spatial distribution, demonstrating different scales of inhomogeneities, average values and spatial variability of chlorophyll a, total organic carbon and total suspended matter as well as data on variance and spatial spectrum of fluctuations of the elastic backscattering signal. Regressions between mean values and coefficients of variation of suspension and chlorophyll a, and between coefficients of variation of suspension and energy of the elastic backscattering signal are established.
The goal of current investigation was a study of seasonal variability of remote sensing reflectance in the lake part of the Gorky reservoir, characterized by intense bloom of blue-green algae. The basis of this study includes the data of ship measurements of remote sensing reflectance, euphotic zone and chlorophyll a and dissolved organic carbon concentrations, performed from May 14, 2018 to August 27, 2018 in 7 points of the reservoir, two of which are located in shallow areas with a slow current (floodplain area), two - in the channel and the remaining three - in estuaries of three inflowing rivers. The spatial and temporal variability of remote sensing reflectance is analyzed, its variations are calculated, vertical profiles of chlorophyll a and dissolved organic carbon are constructed, variations of euphotic depth are determined and correlation between variations of remote sensing reflectance and concentrations of optically active components is established
A shape of marine slicks is an important characteristic which can be used when solving a problem of detection and identification of oil spills on the sea surface. Slick shape and its spatial-temporal evolution depend on many environmental processes, such as wind speed, nonuniform marine currents, internal waves, etc. In the context of the problem of oil spill dynamics it is very important, particularly at initial stages of oil spill evolution, to describe correctly processes of oil film spreading. Until recently the most popular was the Fay’s model of film spreading which, however, could not correctly explain some obvious effects, e.g., asymmetry of film slicks in the downwind and crosswind directions. In this paper new results of field studies of spreading of surfactant films are presented. The experiments with spills of surfactants were conducted on the Gorky water reservoir using a methodology of contouring slicks with a GPS receiver mounted on a motor boat, and also aerial photography from UAV. The following results have been obtained. First, the effect of elongation of oil spills in the wind direction, revealed in our previous experiment, is confirmed. Quantitative data on growth rates of along- and cross-wind slick axes are obtained characterizing initial stages of the spreading process. Second, new effects have been revealed which are: a) saturation of the cross- and along-wind axes at some intermediate stages of slick evolution, and b) further decrease of the along wind slick axis and the slick square, and a tendency to a circular shape at late stages of the slick evolution. A physical model, explaining qualitatively the observed effects is developed.
Dual-polarized microwave radars are of particular interest nowadays as perspective tool of ocean remote sensing. Microwave radar backscattering at moderate and large incidence angles according to conventional models is determined by resonance (Bragg) surface waves typically of cm-scale wavelength range. Some recent experiments have indicated, however, that an additional, non Bragg component (NBC) contributes to the radar return. The latter is considered to occur due to wave breaking. At present our understanding of the nature of different components of radar return is still poor. This paper presents results of field experiment using an X-/C-/S-band Doppler radar operating at HH- and VVpolarizations. The intensity and radar Doppler shifts for Bragg and non Bragg components are retrieved from measurements of VV and HH radar returns. Analysis of a ratio of VV and HH radar backscatter – polarization ratio (PR) has demonstrated a significant role of a non Bragg component. NBC contributes significantly to the total radar backscatter, in particular, at moderate incidence angles (about 50-70 deg.) it is 2-3 times smaller than VV Bragg component and several times larger that HH Bragg component. Both NBC and BC depend on azimuth angle, being minimal for cross wind direction, but NBC is more isotropic than BC. It is obtained that velocities of scatterers retrieved from radar Doppler shifts are different for Bragg waves and for non Bragg component; NBC structures are “faster” than Bragg waves particularly for upwind radar observations. Bragg components propagate approximately with phase velocities of linear gravity-capillary waves (when accounting for wind drift). Velocities of NBC scatterers depend on radar band, being the largest for S-band and the smallest at X-band, this means that different structures on the water surface are responsible for non Bragg scattering in a given radar band.
Retrieving the water-leaving reflectance from airborne hyperspectral data implies to deal with three steps. Firstly, the radiance recorded by an airborne sensor comes from several sources: the real radiance of the object, the atmospheric scattering, sky and sun glint and the dark current of the sensor. Secondly, the dispersive element inside the sensor (usually a diffraction grating or a prism) could move during the flight, thus shifting the observed spectra on the wavelengths axis. Thirdly, to compute the reflectance, it is necessary to estimate, for each band, what value of irradiance corresponds to a 100% reflectance. We present here our calibration method, relying on the absorption features of the atmosphere and the near-infrared properties of common materials. By choosing proper flight height and flight lines angle, we can ignore atmospheric and sun glint contributions. Autocorrelation plots allow to identify and reduce the noise in our signals. Then, we compute a signal that represents the high frequencies of the spectrum, to localize the atmospheric absorption peaks (mainly the dioxygen peak around 760 nm). Matching these peaks removes the shift induced by the moving dispersive element. Finally, we use the signal collected over a Lambertian, unit-reflectance surface to estimate the ratio of the system's transmittances to its near-infrared transmittance. This transmittance is computed assuming an average 50% reflectance of the vegetation and nearly 0% for water in the near-infrared. Results show great correlation between the output spectra and ground measurements from a TriOS Ramses and the water-insight WISP-3.
At present a sufficient amount of methods is offered for determining the characteristics of sea roughness in accordance with optical images of wavy water surface obtained from different near-shore constructions, sea platforms, vessels, aircraft and satellites. The most informative elements in this case are solar path and peripheral areas of the image free from sun glitters. However, underwater images of the surface obtained with the help of optical receiver located at a certain depth contain apart from the mentioned elements one more informative element– Snell’s window. It is an underwater sky image which distortions of border contain information on roughness characteristics and serve as the indicator of its variability. The research offers the method for determining energy spectra of wind waves in accordance with the second statistical moment of Snell’s window image. The results of testing of the offered method are provided based on natural images registered in the course of trip to the Black Sea under conditions of different wind and wave environment for clear surface and surface covered by surfactant films. For both cases frequency spectra of surface slopes are recovered and their good coincidence to the spectra received by processing of signals from a string wave recorder is established. Efficiency of application of the offered method for tasks of remote monitoring and environmental control of natural reservoirs is shown.
Investigation of the Doppler shift of radar return from the sea surface is very important for better understanding of capabilities of exploitation of microwave radar for measuring velocities of marine currents. Here new field experiments carried out from a Platform on the Black Sea with a coherent X-band scatterometer, and a Doppler multifrequency (X- /C-/S-band) dual-polarized radar recently designed at IAP RAS are discussed. It is shown that the radar return contains both Bragg (polarized) and non polarized scattering components, presumably giving different contributions to radar Doppler shifts. Radar Doppler shifts were estimated using two different definitions as a) a frequency of the “centre of gravity” of an instantaneous radar return spectrum (ASIS) averaged over periods of dominant wind waves and b) the “centre of gravity” of the averaged over dominant wave periods spectrum (SAS). The ASIS and SAS values for both VV and HH-polarizations are shown to be different due to effects of radar backscatter modulation by dominant (long) wind waves. The radar Modulation Transfer Function (MTF) has been analyzed from experimental data and difference between SAS- and ASIS-values has been satisfactory explained using the measured MTF-values. It is obtained that experimental values of ASIS can be satisfactory described by the Bragg model despite the significant contribution of NP component to the radar backscatter. A physical explanation of the effect is given.
Access to the requested content is limited to institutions that have purchased or subscribe to SPIE eBooks.
You are receiving this notice because your organization may not have SPIE eBooks access.*
*Shibboleth/Open Athens users─please
sign in
to access your institution's subscriptions.
To obtain this item, you may purchase the complete book in print or electronic format on
SPIE.org.
INSTITUTIONAL Select your institution to access the SPIE Digital Library.
PERSONAL Sign in with your SPIE account to access your personal subscriptions or to use specific features such as save to my library, sign up for alerts, save searches, etc.