N-type GaN exhibits upward, near-surface band bending that can be decreased by generating a surface photovoltage
(SPV). Fitting SPV measurements with a thermionic model based on the emission of charge carriers over the nearsurface
barrier provides information about the band bending in dark. We have studied the temperature dependent SPV
behavior from a Si-doped, n-type GaN sample grown by hydride vapor phase epitaxy in order to determine how the
magnitude of band bending changes at higher temperatures. We have measured the effect of temperature and oxygen on
the steady-state SPV behavior, where oxygen is photo-adsorbed on the surface under band-to-band illumination in an
air/oxygen ambient more efficiently at higher temperatures. As predicted, the intensity-dependent SPV measurements
performed at temperatures between 295 and 500 K exhibit a decrease in the maximum SPV with increasing temperature.
When illumination ceases, the band bending then begins to restore to its dark value with a rate proportional to the sample
temperature, which also fits a thermionic model.
We have studied the surface photovoltage (SPV) for band-to-band illumination on a variety of p-type (Mg-doped) GaN
samples. In particular, differences in the steady-state and transient SPV have been investigated in air and vacuum for
samples grown by hydride vapor phase epitaxy (HVPE) or metal-organic chemical vapor deposition (MOCVD). The
SPV spectra for both samples behave in a similar manner, but larger SPVs are generated for HVPE vs. MOCVD samples
under identical illumination conditions. Interestingly, we have found that p-type GaN can be sensitive to the illumination
geometry, where illumination of the electrical contacts results in an anomalous "offset" of the SPV signal. Regardless of
illumination geometry, such offsets always appear in the case of MOCVD samples, whereas they do not appear for
HVPE samples when the contacts are not illuminated. Since we have never observed such behavior for n-type samples, it
appears that the stability of p-type samples under illumination may be an issue.
The surface charge behavior on n-type GaN was investigated as a function of UV exposure in ambient. It was first
noticed that the surface photovoltage (SPV), or change in surface contact potential under UV illumination, could
slowly decrease during illumination. The SPV for as-grown samples is ~0.6 eV and can drop by up to 0.3 eV over
1 h of UV exposure in air ambient. We believe that this slow decrease is due to the photo-induced chemisorption of
oxygen species. Interestingly, samples exhibit a smaller drop in SPV during continuous UV illumination after many
hours of accumulated UV exposure. This can be explained by the UV-induced growth of a thicker surface oxide
layer which inhibits electron transfer from the bulk to the surface. The original SPV behavior can be restored by
chemical etching to remove the additional surface oxide. We have also investigated the surface behavior by locally
charging the surface before and after UV-induced oxide growth. Measurements of the surface contact potential using
scanning Kelvin probe microscopy (SKPM) demonstrate that negatively charged regions initially spread laterally on
the UV-exposed surface, but not on the clean surface. The UV-induced oxide therefore appears to be relatively
conductive and enhance the lateral motion of injected electrons. The discharge of both the negatively and positively
charged regions under dark conditions is similar for both the initial and UV-exposed surfaces and shows a
logarithmic time dependence.
The concept of non-polar (11bar00) m-plane GaN on Si substrates has been demonstrated by initiating growth on the
vertical (1bar1bar1) sidewalls of patterned Si(112) substrates using metalorganic chemical vapor deposition. The Si(112)
substrates were wet-etched to expose {111} planes using stripe-patterned SiNx masks oriented along the [1bar10] direction.
Only the vertical Si (1bar1bar1) sidewalls were allowed to participate in GaN growth by masking other Si{111} planes using
SiO2, which led to m-plane GaN films. Growth initiating on the Si (1bar1bar1) planes normal to the surface was allowed to
advance laterally and also vertically towards full coalescence. The full width at half maximum values for the GaN mplane
x-ray diffraction rocking curves were 9 and 27 arcmin when rocked toward the GaN a-axis (parallel to stripes) and
the GaN c-axis (perpendicular to stripes), respectively. Room-temperature photoluminescence showed strong band-edge
emission with an intensity comparable to that of laterally overgrown c-plane GaN. InGaN double heterostructure active
layers grown on these m-GaN templates on Si exhibited two times higher internal quantum efficiencies as compared to
their c-plane counterparts at comparable carrier densities. These results demonstrate a promising method to obtain highquality
non-polar m-GaN films on large area, inexpensive Si substrates.
High brightness InGaN light emitting diodes (LEDs) require high quantum efficiency and its retention at high injection
levels. The efficiency drop at a high injection levels in InGaN light emitting diodes (LEDs) has been attributed, e.g. to
polarization field on polar c-plane InGaN and the heavy effective hole mass which impedes high hole densities and
transport in the active quantum wells. In this study, we carried out a comparative investigation of the internal quantum
efficiency (IQE) of InGaN active region in LED structures using resonant optical excitation for layers with polar (0001)
orientation on c-plane sapphire, and nonpolar (1-100) m-plane orientation, the latter on specially patterned Si and on m-plane bulk GaN. Analysis of the resonant photoluminescence (PL) intensity as a function of the excitation power
indicate that at comparable generated carrier concentrations the IQE of the m-plane InGaN on Si is approximately a
factor of 2 higher than that of the highly optimized c-plane layer. At the highest laser excitation level employed
(corresponding carrier concentration n ~ 1.2 x 1018 cm-3), the m-plane LED structure on Si has an IQE value of
approximately 65%. We believe that the m-plane would remain inherently advantageous, particularly at high electrical
injection levels, even with respect to highly optimized c-plane varieties. The observations could be attributed to the lack
of polarization induced field and the predicted increased optical matrix elements.
Photoluminescence (PL) and surface photovoltage (SPV) of GaN layers were studied in vacuum and air ambient. SPV transients were measured with two set-ups: traditional Kelvin probe attached to an optical cryostat and atomic force microscope in contact potential mode. It is found that upward band bending in GaN decreases from its dark value of about 0.9 eV to about 0.3 eV under intense UV light and then gradually increases in air ambient (due to photoadsorption of oxygen) and decreases in vacuum (due to photodesorption of oxygen). Manifestations of such changes were observed as changes in PL intensity and in SPV (both increased in vacuum and decreased in air). The effects were sample-dependent.
Charge trapping resulting in localized band bending on MBE-grown GaN films was investigated using a new
combination of conducting atomic force microscopy (CAFM) and scanning Kelvin probe microscopy (SKPM). CAFM
was first used to locally inject charge at the surface oxide/semiconductor interface, and then SKPM was performed to
monitor the evolution of the resulting surface potential. In a dark environment, the additionally charged interface states
due to CAFM charge injection resulted in an induced additional band bending that persisted for hours. The induced band
bending is nominal (<0.5 eV) for CAFM voltages less than 8 V, and reaches a saturation value of ~3 eV for voltages
greater than 10 V. The saturation band bending corresponds to a total density of charged interface states (2×1012 cm-2)
that is double the value observed for the intrinsic surface. Induced band bending could still be observed up to 4 h after
charge injection, indicating that charge trapping is relatively stable in a dark environment. However, charged interface
states could be rapidly neutralized by illumination with UV light. A phenomenological model based on a tunneling
mechanism was used to successfully describe the CAFM charge injection, where electrons travel from the tip through an
oxide barrier and become trapped at oxide/GaN interface states. Saturation occurs due to the existence of a finite density
of chargeable states at the interface. After charge injection, the decrease in induced band bending with time was found to
be consistent with a thermionic model of charge transfer from the interface to the bulk.
ZnO nanorods were grown by catalyst-assisted vapor phase transport on Si(001), GaN(0001)/c-Al2O3, and bulk
ZnO(0001) substrates. Morphology studies as well as X-ray diffraction and transmission electron microscopy showed
that ZnO nanorods grew mostly perpendicular to the GaN(0001) and ZnO(0001) substrate surface, whereas a more
random directional distribution was found for nanorods on Si(001). Integral optical properties of fabricated nanorods
were studied by steady-state photoluminescence and time-resolved photoluminescence. Stimulated emission was
observed from ZnO nanorods on GaN(0001)/c-Al2O3 substrates, most likely due to their vertical orientation. Near-field
scanning optical microscopy was applied to investigate luminescent properties of individual rods. Raman
spectroscopy revealed biaxial compressive strain in the nanorod samples grown on Si(001). Conductive atomic force
microscopy showed that nanorods are electrically isolated from each other. I-V spectra of individual nanorods were
measured.
KEYWORDS: Epitaxial lateral overgrowth, Gallium nitride, Atomic force microscopy, Metalorganic chemical vapor deposition, Data acquisition, Gallium, Near field scanning optical microscopy, Oxides, Silicon, Oxidation
The techniques of atomic force microscopy (AFM) and conductive AFM (CAFM) have been used to study the
morphology and conduction properties of a-plane GaN films grown via epitaxial lateral overgrowth (ELO). Four GaN
samples were prepared using metal organic chemical vapor deposition (MOCVD) with slightly different growth
conditions. In AFM images, the coalesced ELO films show undulations, where the window regions appear as
depressions with a higher defect density than surrounding areas. At reverse bias above 20 V, lower quality samples show
localized leakage defect sites inside the window regions, whereas higher quality samples show no localized leakage.
This behavior is consistent with previous observations on non-ELO samples where significantly enhanced localized
leakage occurs at voltages above 15 V. Surface oxidation was also observed, where continuous scanning at reverse bias
results in decreased conduction. This CAFM study confirms that ELO-grown GaN samples show enhanced reverse-bias
leakage inside window regions where a higher defect density is present.
KEYWORDS: Gallium nitride, Epitaxial lateral overgrowth, Metalorganic chemical vapor deposition, Transmission electron microscopy, Luminescence, Atomic force microscopy, Near field scanning optical microscopy, Picosecond phenomena, Scanning electron microscopy, Excitons
We report on growth and characterization of epitaxial lateral overgrown (ELO) (112-0) a-plane GaN by metalorganic
chemical vapor deposition (MOCVD). The ELO samples were grown using a SiO2 striped mask pattern consisting of 4
&mgr;m wide open windows and 10 &mgr;m or 20 &mgr;m wide SiO2 stripes. Different growth rates in Ga- and N-wings along with
the wing tilt create a major obstacle for achieving a fully coalesced flat surface in ELO-GaN. To address this problem we
have employed a two-step growth method that is able to provide a high height to width aspect ratio in the first growth
step followed by enhanced lateral growth in the second step by controlling the growth temperature. Depending on the
growth conditions, lateral growth rate of the wings with Ga-polarity were from 2 to 5 times larger than that of the N-polarity
wings. We investigated the effects of growth parameters on wing tilt, which was observed to be ~0.25° from the
Kikuchi lines using large angle convergent beam electron diffraction (LACBED) and accompanied by some twist (0.09°)
between the two opposite wings. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) results showed that the threading dislocation
density in the resulting fully coalesced overgrown GaN was reduced from 4.2×1010 cm-2 in the window area to 1.0×108 cm-2 in the wing area, and that the wing areas contained relatively high density of basal stacking faults, 1.2×104 cm-1.
The recombination of carriers/excitons localized at stacking faults was evident in far-field near bandedge
photoluminescence (PL) measured at 10 K. Moreover, atomic force microscopy (AFM) measurements revealed two
orders of magnitude higher density of surface pits in window than in wing regions, which could be decorating
dislocation termination on surface.
Time-resolved PL measurements for the a-plane ELO-GaN samples revealed biexponential decays. The recombination
times were significantly increased ( &tgr;1
=80 ps and &tgr;2
=250 ps) compared to the standard a-plane epitaxial layers (<45 ps),
and ratio of the slow decaying component magnitude to the fast decaying one was more than 1.5, showing considerable
reduction of nonradiative centers by lateral overgrowth. In addition, room temperature near-field optical microscopy
studies revealed the improved optical quality in the wing regions of the overgrown GaN. As revealed from far-field PL,
the band edge luminescence at room temperature was more than two orders of magnitude weaker than the yellow
luminescence. Therefore, the overall spectrally integrated near field PL was collected, and its intensity was noticeably
stronger in the wing areas with both Ga and N polarity. The much weaker emission at the windows and meeting fronts of
the two opposite wings were consistent with the observations of high density of dislocations in the window regions and
new defects originating at the meeting boundaries from TEM.
We have used the techniques of atomic force microscopy (AFM) and conductive AFM (C-AFM) to investigate the morphology and localized current conduction of GaN films grown by molecular beam epitaxy (MBE) on metal organic chemical vapor deposition (MOCVD) templates. The most common type of surface morphology consists of undulating spiral "hillocks" terminated by small pits. A low density of holes are interspersed between these hillocks with typical diameters of ~150 nm and densities on the order of 108 cm-2. For C-AFM measurements, a Pt-coated AFM tip was brought into contact with the GaN surface to form a microscopic Schottky contact. In reverse bias, C-AFM shows localized current leakage at the centers of approximately 10% of spiral hillocks, which are presumably associated with screw dislocations. Shifts in forward-bias turn-on voltages and changes in the conduction mechanism are observed in these defect regions. Local I-V curves indicate a Frenkel-Poole mechanism for forward conduction on defect regions.
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