Autocollimators are excellent measuring tools for many applications, such as adjustments or characterizations of precision mechanics, optics and instruments. Autocollimators have several characteristic error sources due to misalignment or nonideality of the collimator lens, the light source and the sensor. To fully characterize errors related to simultaneous engagement of both measurement axes of the autocollimator a two directional angle generator is necessary.
In this paper, VTT MIKES interferometric 2-directional small angle generator (I2D-SAG) with updated model for calibration of autocollimators is described. It generates angles around 2 orthogonal axes with high accuracy. The maximum range of the I2D-SAG is ±1000” for both axes. In calibration of a high quality autocollimator a standard uncertainty below 0.01” can be reached.
In addition, preliminary results of a comparison of I2D-SAG and PTB Spatial Angle Autocollimator Calibrator (SAAC) instrument are presented. This is the first comparison between 2D autocollimator calibration systems. In this comparison, a good agreement was reached in characterization of an electronic autocollimator over 900”×900” range.
Online measurement of diameters and concentricities of optical fibre layers, and the coating layer in particular, is one of the challenges in fibre manufacturing. Currently available instruments can measure concentricity and diameter of layers offline, and are not suitable for precise monitoring or control of the manufacturing process in real time. In this work, we use two laser beams, positioned orthogonally to illuminate the fibre from two sides, and calculate deviations from the expected geometry by analysing the scattering pattern. To measure the diffraction pattern we use two 8K linear array detectors, with the scattered light incident directly on the sensors. Each detector is capturing approximately 90° angular range directly behind the fibre. The two measurement channels are positioned at different heights. The scattered pattern is modelled mathematically with finite-element and Fourier-modal methods, with various diameter and concentricity deviations. The sensitivities of the changes in the scattering pattern are identified in respect to these deviations. Since calculations are computationally intensive, the sensitivities are pre-calculated in advance, and the realtime measurement is based on pattern recognition. The symmetry of the pattern is used to differentiate between diameter and concentricity variations. We performed online measurements with the prototype instrument in production conditions, and show that this method is sensitive enough to measure deviations of under 1 µm in diameter and concentricity of the coating layer.
Diffractive optical elements offer a great way to control light beyond the capabilities of traditional refractive
components. Because of the very small feature sizes, the characterization of diffractive optical elements is
challenging. Using current invasive methods, such as scanning electron microscope (SEM) or atomic force
microscope (AFM), the measurements are slow and potentially destructive to the element. Employing optical
scatterometery, the measurements are not only fast and non-destructive but also integrable to inline control
of the fabrication and replication processes. In this work we use scatterometer to determine the dimensional
parameters of binary diffractive optical elements and compare the results with the parameters obtained with
AFM and SEM.
Scanning white light interferometry (SWLI) is an established methodology for non-destructive testing of MEMS/NEMS. In contrast to monochromatic interference microcopy SWLI can unambiguously resolve surfaces featuring tall vertical steps. Oscillating samples can be imaged using a stroboscopic SWLI (SSWLI) equipped with a pulsed light source. To measure static samples the lateral and vertical scales of the SSWLI can be calibrated using transfer standards with calibrated dimensions such as line scales, 2D gratings, gauge blocks, and step height standards. However, traceable dynamic characterization of SSWLI requires a transfer standard (TS) providing repeatable traceable periodic movement. A TS based on a piezo-scanned flexure guided stage with capacitive feedback was designed and manufactured. The trajectories of the stage motion for different amplitude and frequency settings were characterized to have ~2 nm standard uncertainty. Characterization was made using a symmetric differential heterodyne laser interferometer (SDHLI). The TS was first used to characterize quasidynamic measurements across the vertical range of the SSWLI, 100 μm. Dynamic measurement properties of the SSWLI were then characterized using a sinusoidal vertical trajectory with 2 μm nominal amplitude and 50 Hz frequency. The motion amplitude of the TS, 2038 nm, measured with the SSWLI was 6 nm smaller than the amplitude measured with SDHLI. The repeatability of SSWLI expressed as experimental standard deviation of the mean was 8.8 nm. The maximum deviation in instantaneous displacement and oscillation velocity were 49 nm and 27 μm/s, respectively. A traceable method to characterize the capacity of the SSWLI to perform dynamic measurements at sub-kHz frequencies was demonstrated.
A stroboscopic scanning white light interferometer (SSWLI) can characterize both static features and motion in micro(nano)electromechanical system devices. SSWLI measurement results should be linked to the meter definition to be comparable and unambiguous. This traceability is achieved by careful error characterization and calibration of the interferometer. The main challenge in vertical scale calibration is to have a reference device with reproducible out-of-plane movement. A piezo-scanned flexure guided stage with capacitive sensor feedback was attached to a mirror and an Invar steel holder with a reference plane—forming a transfer standard that was calibrated by laser interferometry with 2.3 nm uncertainty. The moving mirror vertical position was then measured with the SSWLI, relative to the reference plane, between successive mirror position steppings. A light-emitting diode pulsed at 100 Hz with 0.5% duty cycle synchronized to the CCD camera and a halogen light source were used. Inside the scanned 14 μm range, the measured SSWLI scale amplification coefficient error was 0.12% with 4.5 nm repeatability of the steps. For SWLI measurements using a halogen lamp, the corresponding results were 0.05% and 6.7 nm. The presented methodology should permit accurate traceable calibration of the vertical scale of any SWLI.
A scanning white light interferometer can characterize out of plane features and motion in M(N)EMS devices. Like any
other form and displacement measuring instrument, the scanning interferometer results should be linked to the metre
definition to be comparable and unambiguous. Traceability is built up by careful error characterization and calibration of
the interferometer. The main challenge in this calibration is to have a reference device producing accurate and
reproducible dynamic out-of-plane displacement when submitted to standard loads. We use a flat mirror attached to a
piezoelectric transducer for static and (quasi)dynamic calibration of a stroboscopic scanning light interferometer. First
we calibrated the piezo-scanned flexure guided transducer stage using a symmetric differential heterodyne laser
interferometer developed at the Centre for Metrology and Accreditation (MIKES). The standard uncertainty of the piezo
stage motion calibration was 3.0 nm. Then we used the piezo-stage as a transfer standard to calibrate our stroboscopic
interferometer whose light source was pulsed at 200 Hz and 400 Hz with 0.5% duty cycle. We measured the static
position and (quasi)dynamic motion of the attached mirror relative to a reference surface. This methodology permits
calibrating the vertical scale of the stroboscopic scanning white light interferometer.
Gratings and step height standards are useful transfer standards for lateral and vertical length scale calibration of atomic force microscopes (AFMs). In order to have traceability to the SI-meter, the standards must have been calibrated prior to use. Metrological AFMs (MAFMs) with online laser interferometric position measurements are versatile instruments for the calibrations. The developed task-specific measurement strategies for step height and pitch calibrations with the Centre for Metrology and Accreditation's (MIKES's) metrological AFM are described. The strategies were developed to give high accuracy and to reduce measurement time. Detailed uncertainty estimations for step height and grating pitch calibrations are also given. Standard uncertainties are 0.016 and 0.018 nm for 300 and 700 nm pitch standards, respectively, and 0.21 and 0.44 nm for 7 and 1000 nm step height standards.
Gratings and step height standards are useful transfer standards for lateral and vertical length scale calibration of AFMs.
In order to have traceability to the SI-metre, the standards must have been calibrated prior to use. Metrological AFMs
(MAFMs) with online laser interferometric position measurements are versatile instruments for the calibrations. The
developed task specific measurement strategies for step height and pitch calibrations with MIKES metrological AFM are
described. The strategies were developed to give high accuracy and to reduce the measurement time. Detailed
uncertainty estimations for step height and grating pitch calibrations are also given.
An acoustic method for the measurement of the effective temperature and refractive index of air for precision length interferometry is described. The method can be used to improve the accuracy of interferometric length measurements outside the best laboratory conditions and also in industrial conditions. The method is based on the measurement of speed of 50-kHz ultrasound over the same distance measured with a laser interferometer. The measured speed of ultrasound is used to define the effective temperature or the refractive index of air along the laser beam path using the equations presented. The measured speed of sound, Cramer equation, dispersion correction, and Edlén equations are used in the fitting of new equations for the effective air temperature and refractive index of air as a function of speed of 50-kHz ultrasound. The standard uncertainties of the effective temperature and the refractive index of air equations are 15 mK and 1.7×10–8, respectively. The uncertainties of the effective temperature and refractive index of air measured with the test setup for distances of about 5 m are 25 mK and 2.6×10–8, respectively.
An acoustic method for measurement of the effective temperature and refractive index of air along a laser beam path is described. The method can be used to improve the accuracy of interferometric length measurements outside the best laboratories, and even in severe environmental conditions. The method is based on the measurement of the speed of ultrasound over the same distance measured with a laser interferometer. The effectiveness of the method derives from the fact that the relative effect of a change in air temperature is about two thousand times greater on the speed of sound than on the refractive index of air. Experimental equations for the effective temperature or refractive index of air as a function of the speed of sound, pressure, humidity and CO2 concentration are fitted using the measured speed of sound, the Cramer equation, the dispersion correction and Edlén equations. The standard uncertainties of the effective temperature and the refractive index of air equations are estimated to be 15 mK and 1.7×10-8, respectively. The uncertainties of the effective temperature and refractive index of air measured with the test setup were 25 mK and 2.6×10-8 (for L = ~5 m), respectively.
Optical measurements with coordinate measurement machines equipped with optical sensors, and video measurement machines, are clearly increasing in industry. Accurately manufactured two-dimensional standards, with a precision typically between 0.05 μm and 5μm, are used to check and calibrate these measuring machines. In order to start a calibration service for two-dimensional standards, a new calibration machine is currently under development at the Centre for Metrology and Accreditation (MIKES). In this paper we describe the mechanical design, properties and present a detailed uncertainty analysis of position measurement. By modeling and compensating mechanical error sources the required standard uncertainty level of 50 nm is achievable.
A new design for a variable length vacuum path air refractometer is developed. The device has some advantages as compared with traditional gas refractometers. It measures directly the refractive index of laboratory air. Hence it is not necessary to move air to or form any separate cavity. The optical construction of the device is simple. The device utilizes two Michelson type interferometers. One interferometer has fixed mechanical lengths in both arms. The optical length of one arm can be altered by changing the proportion between air and vacuum lengths of the beam path. This is realized by a variable length vacuum cylinder. The other interferometer measures the displacement of the vacuum window of the cylinder. The interference signals caused by the change of optical path change and by displacement of the vacuum window are digitalized and analyzed to give the refractive index of ambient air. The Abbe error is eliminated by using a glass corner cube with hole through the center that allows symmetric alignment of the beams of the two interferometers. Difference of refractive index values measured by the refractometer and calculated with updated Edlen's formula form experimental data was 1.2 X 10-8 when standard deviation of the difference was 4 X 10-8.
Responsivity calibrations of trap detectors with a cryogenic absolute radiometer and a power-stabilized 543.51 6-nm He-Ne laser are described. The trap detectors are used as transfer standards of optical power at visible wavelengths because they have a predictable spectral responsivity. New results on transmittance measurements of PRC Krochmann V(λ) filters are presented, especially the angle and temperature dependence of the transmittance. The characterized trap detector and the V(λ) filter are used for a novel realization of the SI base unit of luminous intensity, the candela. Test measurements indicate a good agreement with previous photometric scales.
Automated interferometers designed for calibration of gauge blocks and line scales are described. The gauge-block calibrator is a scanning interferometer with a white-light source and 633-nm He-Ne laser. The line-scale interferometer also uses a dynamic measurement method with a microscope and a CCD camera as the graduation line detector. The interferometers mainly use the same electronic units and meters for the environmental parameters. The combined standard uncertainty (1σ) is 52 nm for the gauge-block interferometer and 72 nm for the line-scale interferometer for 1-m steel standards
Automated interferometer equipments are described which can be used for calibrations of gauge blocks and line scales with lengths up to 1000 mm. For the gauge blocks, the scanning measurement method utilizes a white-light source and one stabilized 633-nm laser. White-light interference signals from the reference flat and from the front surface of the gauge block mark the distance to be measured with the laser. The final length is determined from the laser-signal phase shifts between the gauge and the reference flat. Environmental conditions are measured and the necessary corrections are made automatically. The repeatability of the measurements is +/- 3 nm for a 400-mm gauge block and the estimated relative uncertainty (1 s) is about 10-7. The variation in length of the gauge block is obtained by computer-aided analysis of the digitized interference fringe patterns. For the line scales, a new measurement method has been developed which can utilize the same electronic units as used for gauge-block calibration: images of the graduation lines replace the white-light interferences. The two fields constituting a video frame (image) are recorded by a moving microscope and by a ccd camera with 1-ms charging time interval. The exact distance between the microscope positions at the time of charging the ccd pixels is deduced from the interference and video synchronization signals. It is expected that a total uncertainty of about 100 nm for a 1000-mm scale will be reached.
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