With the recent advancement in artificial intelligence and machine learning (AI/ML), the electronic nose (e-Nose) technology has improved significantly in the last decade. However, relying on the signals produced by an array of gas and volatile organic compound (VOC) sensors used as the hardware of an e-Nose, the overall performance of the system is limited by the sensor types and sensing mechanisms. The majority of the commercially available gas/VOC sensors are using metal-oxide (MOX) thin films. Although MOX sensors are relatively stable, they are extremely power-hungry. Therefore, other materials have been investigated for gas and VOC sensing. In this work, we have focused on the application of organometallic compounds as a low-cost and low-power alternative to the MOX sensors. Copper Phthalocyanine (CuPc) has been tested in both forms of a chemiresistor and an electrochemical cell. In the electrochemical design, the material presented a unique selectivity to formic acid due to a protonation reaction. However, removing contaminants from the electrolyte of an electrochemical cell is challenging and limits the repeatability of the sensor response. In contrast, in a thin-film design (chemiresistor), CuPc responds to various VOCs including ethanol, isoproapanol, and acetone, but due to the lack of the protonation mechanism, the selectivity response was not observed. Our studies on ZnPc and CoPc, also, are promising for designing an array of metal phthalocyanines (MPcs) as the hardware of an e-Nose to address the shortcomings in the MOX technology.
With technological advances occurring worldwide, wearable electronics have garnered significant attention within diverse fields, from medical to industry. Carbon Nanotube (CNT) ink has had a big impact on these applications of e-textiles. Conductive patterns can be made by printing the CNT ink directly on fabrics. However, a new process and chemical have been tested, where alternatively, a conductive pattern can be applied by laser burning of a lignin-coated layer over a piece of fabric. In this work, we evaluated the quality of patterned laminated polyester ripstop fabric with the two methods of silk screen printing of the CNT ink and the laser burning of lignin. A major focus within these two methods is their resistance values. CNT ink has succeeded with a lower four-probe resistance of about 19.69 Ω/, making it preferable for wearable applications. However, patterning can become an issue when coating CNT ink. Laser burning has its pros and cons: while it can be much simpler to pattern, it has a much higher four-probe resistance of about 49.21 Ω/. In this study, the laser power and rastering are evaluated and compared to the resistance values of CNT ink coating. With this success, further testing on different fabrics and patterns can lead to more inexpensive yet efficient applications and devices.
In the modern world, wearable electronics are potentially intensifying a transformation of the military, aerospace, medical, industrial, and commercial industries. However, manufacturing electronic circuits or devices directly on fabrics is a major challenge. In this study, we have addressed the issue by developing a two-step manufacturing process by coating a piece of polyester fabric with lignin. Initially, a conductive template was achieved on the fabric after laser-burning lignin. In the second step, using an in-house design printer, copper was electroplated over the conductive template to achieve a very low resistive circuit layout. The conductivity measurements were monitored before and after destructive tests such as bending, rolling, washing, and adhesion tests to prove remarkable stability and flexibility. The quality of the conductive patterns was examined through scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Furthermore, the copper deposition method was applied to solder a light-emitting diode (LED) to the applied circuit layout on the fabric. The proposed two-step manufacturing method has a promising potential to fabricate reliable and leading-edge wearable electronics for various applications.
Among different conducting polymers, PEDOT:PSS has been used for making organic electrochemical transistors (OECTs) due to the remarkable stability and the electrochemical properties of the polymer. With the fast-growing market for wearable electronics, the application of OECTs has been proposed for wearable sensors. However, the majority of OECTs have a planar design. Recently, we have demonstrated the feasibility of fabricating OECTs on sewing threads. This work has focused on studying the effect of thread materials on the performance of fiber-based OECTs made for wearable pH sensors. Such sensors can be used to collect metabolic information from the body of a patient by analyzing the pH of perspiration. The three most commercially common different kinds of threads were used to make OECTs with polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) gel as the electrolyte. Using 100% cotton, 25% cotton-75% polyester, and 32% cotton-68% polyester threads were used to fabricate and then characterize the transistor. Threads were coated with PEDOT:PSS polymer to use as a channel then use a Silver coated thread as a gate and a PVA gel electrolyte. Devices were tested by applying different voltages to the transistor terminals and monitoring the current through the PEDOT:PSS. The best signal was obtained from the device made on 25% cotton-75% polyester thread. The experimental results showed a promising approach that can lead to a good wearable pH sensor on human perspiration.
Despite the expected high demands in the agricultural industry, the application of health monitoring systems for plants is still at the research level. While imaging methods are often used for monitoring the health status of the shoot part of a plant, there are limited parameters that can be measured for assessing the health status of a plant root. Studies show that roots need oxygen for aerobic respiration. Higher dissolved oxygen near the root zone may result in a more massive root and a healthier plant. Conventional oxygen sensors are designed to measure the oxygen level in a gaseous environment. Due to their bulky structure, their application for monitoring oxygen in the soil is challenging. In this study, we have used A10 zinc-air batteries as oxygen sensors to monitor the oxygen level at the root zone of four garden plants: sweet pepper, basil, tomato, and cherry tomato. Using a microcontroller system, the electric current from the batteries was recorded as a signal related to the oxygen level. The measurements indicate a variation of ~1% in the oxygen level every 24 hours when the plants were exposed to a controlled light for 12 hours and kept in dark for 12 hours. The simplicity of the application of Zn-air batteries allows us to monitor the oxygen level at several locations around the root of a plant to study their breathing through their roots.
KEYWORDS: Sensors, Data modeling, Gas sensors, Principal component analysis, Machine learning, Gases, Detector arrays, Bioalcohols, Education and training, Nose
With the increasing demand in using electronic noses (e-noses) for various medical, industrial, and military applications, the technology of such devices is still struggling with the limitations in the gas sensors. Particularly, a limitation is in the relatively poor sensitivity and selectivity of the commercially available sensors for measuring the concentrations of various gases and volatile organic compounds (VOCs). The shortcoming has been addressed by employing machine learning (ML) methods to analyze signals from an array of gas sensors. However, with different ML models, it is required to study the effect of different models on data interpretation. In this study, we have designed a microcontroller-based system equipped with eight different gas/VOC sensors, designed for detecting CO2, O2, CO, NO, NO2, NH3, alcohol, and acetone. The sensors were tested with streams of air mixed with various VOCs including methanol, ethanol, and isopropanol at different flow rates. The collected data from the sensors were analyzed using PCA, LDA, and CNN methods for not only recognizing the signatures of different gases, but also differentiating between them and recognizing their ratio in a mixture. The results of the studies are promising for designing more effective hardware equipped with an ML modeling system to analyze the concentration of various gases and VOCs in a mixed situation.
Due to the increasing demand for using compact and low-power wireless sensors, the interest in designing hybrid cells with the dual properties of energy harvesting and storage has been growing in recent years. Among different designs, twoelectrode hybrid cells are more suitable for low-voltage and low-power electronics. Using a redox-active polyvinyl alcohol (PVA)/polyaniline (PANI)-based gel electrolyte, a two-terminal device was fabricated and tested in this study. The performance of the gel electrolyte was assessed in different devices made from a carbon nanotube-based cathode and four different anodes. All the tested anodes were made from a conductive glass coated with mesoporous TiO2, transparent TiO2, opaque TiO2, or mesoporous ZrO2. Cyclic voltammetry (CV), open circuit voltage (OCV), and short circuit current (SCC) were conducted to investigate the properties of the devices. The fabricated device with the transparent TiO2 coating has shown a capacitance of 0.363 mF and with the opaque TiO2 coating has shown a photovoltaic potential of 244 mV. The results suggest further studies on materials nanostructure to achieve higher energy conversion efficiency and larger storage capacitances for future applications in wireless devices.
With the increasing interest in wearable electronics, still, building electronic circuits on fabrics is challenging. Among different approaches, fiber shape electrochemical transistors are potentially suitable for various applications, particularly for bioelectronics. Fiber-based devices are getting popular because of their low fabrication cost, lightweight, and mechanical flexibility without losing their properties as sensors and transistors. In this work, we have studied an organic electrochemical transistor made from two conductive threads with a gel electrolyte. The transistor was tested when it was exposed to an acidic solution which then showed a change in the drain current. The results from testing the conductive thread between the drain and source reviled the effect of the pH on the PEDOT:PSS coating used as the semiconducting material in the transistor design. The results are encouraging for the applications in new low-cost, flexible bioelectronics sensing devices.
Metalated phthalocyanines (MPcs) are a special class of organic semiconductors having unique chemical structures and properties. The material’s conjugated 18-π electron structure enables a strong fusion with carbon nano tubes (CNTs) which have a highly delocalized π electron structure. This strong binding between MPc and CNT facilitates the study of the material in an electrochemical cell. Here in this account, we report a novel method of identifying the selectivity and sensitivity trend of several MPcs with different metal cores through an electrochemical approach. Sensor electrode was prepared by drop casting the MPc solution on paper strips coated with CNT ink, and then tested in electrochemical cell in a 2-electrode fashion. The nature of the redox reactions between MPc and the VOC analytes (i.e., acetone, ethanol, isopropanol, and methanol) were studied through cyclic voltammetry (CV), electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS), and chronoamperometry. Four different metalated phthalocyanines (CoPc, CuPc, MgPc, and ZnPc) are studied here. Experimental results suggest large shift in conductivity in the CoPc sensor upon exposure to ethanol, MgPc sensor upon exposure to isopropanol, and ZnPc sensor upon exposure to acetone.
With the net zero carbon emissions target by 2050, in the agricultural sector, it is essential to employ technologies to reduce the consumption of energy and resources while enhancing the yield of crops. Learning about how measurable signals can indicate the growth status of various plants will be beneficial for designing plant health monitoring systems (PHMSs) that can be used around the globe for the efficient growth of plants. In this work, we have designed and employed an array of gas sensors, acting as an electronic nose, to monitor the health status of lettuce being grown in a chamber by measuring the emission and consumption of various gases and volatile organic compounds (VOCs). While emission of ethylene is a strong indicator, we have found that accurate concentration measurements of CO2 and alcohols can also be used to assess the health status of the plant at its different stages of growth, particularly at the seedling and vegetative stages. ~20% change in the alcohol concentration and more than 2 folds increase in the equivalent CO2 level was observed when brown leaves started growing before the plant died. The results of the studies can help to design a simple PHMS that can help grow vegetables at a high yield with minimum supervision
In the area of environmental monitoring, Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) have become a major concern. Specifically, in indoor environments, VOCs have been found to be linked with various health conditions-ranging from benign to lethal. Early detection of VOC gases can play a crucial role in ensuring a safe environment. In this work, we have looked into two different geometrical arrangements of methylammonium lead iodide (MAPbI3) perovskite to study how their selectivity and sensitivity towards an array of VOC gases under different illumination conditions may be affected. For the purpose of a comparative study, we tested the sensitivity of the device using two different photo-resistor designs, namely, (a) capillary-filled microchannels, where microchannels were created on indium tin oxide (ITO) coated plastic substrate, and leveraging the capillary motion force the microchannels were filled with the perovskite precursor solution, and (b) thin-film approach, where perovskite layers were spin coated on substrates with two conductive pads across. Samples of both designs were exposed to four analytes: acetone, ethanol, isopropanol, and methanol. In our previous study on the capillary design, we reported a decrease in photocurrent by about 22% upon exposure to methanol under illuminated conditions. The goal of this comparative study is to identify the viability of the photo-resistor design for fabricating a low-cost and fast-response gas sensor for the purpose of environmental monitoring.
Due to the intermittent nature of solar energy availability, often an energy storage element such as a battery or supercapacitor is required to store the energy from a solar cell. The combination of a separate solar cell and an energy storage device is not usually suitable for small and compact electronic circuits with small footprints. Although various hybrid solar cell-supercapacitor devices have been studied before, the majority of them are two cells in one package with one electrode being shared between the two cells. We have designed and studied a new class of two-terminal hybrid electrochemical cells made of conducting polymer (e.g., polyaniline) composites with porous electrodes. In one design, a polymer film with embedded dye molecules has been used as a photoactive electrode in a supercapacitor presenting open circuit voltage changes up to 430 mV under illumination. In another design, the conducting polymer was employed in the electrolyte of the cell making a supercapacitor with the capability of harvesting light through the electrolyte. Voltages as high as 138 mV were achieved in the new device. Due to the storage property, the voltage drop 10 min after the secession of light was ~15 mV. While the fabrication of devices with the photoactive gel is easier, the higher efficiency in thin-film devices is more promising. Further development of two-terminal hybrid cells can open doors for designing compact and self-powered wireless sensors for various applications, including wearable electronics.
Despite the fast growth of using perovskite materials in solar cells and photo-sensors, there are still many unanswered questions about the processes for their unique electro-optical properties. In this regard, simulation of the material can help for better understanding of the perovskites’ properties. In this study, we have investigated the crystalline structure of methylammonium lead iodide, MAPbI3, perovskite using the density functional theory (DFT). The majority of DFT modeling of perovskite targets the ground state, at 0 K. Analysis at ground state simplifies several quantum mechanical effects and the model results are enlightening. Yet for practical application at ambient temperature, DFT models must include more physical processes which involve making mathematical simplifications and quantum mechanical assumptions to simplify the computations. Here we delved into the practical implication of the move from theory to practical algorithms and tools, identified the range of current computational implications and limitations, the problems of accurately modeling these substances at room temperature, the computational costs, expected results afforded by DFT models for real, practical materials. We have surveyed the required extensions needed to perform DFT on MAPbI3 which necessarily include the temperature modeling, crystal vibrational and frame deformation, phonon action and the novel characteristics of a free MA cation constrained within a Pb-I structure. The developed algorithm for the DFT analysis of perovskite can then be used as a tool for further study of the effect of various factors on the material properties.
In recent years, the interest in photovoltaic supercapacitors has been increasing in order to develop self-powered sensors for a sustainable system. Hence, significant research efforts are needed to enhance the photoelectric and electrochemical performances of hybrid devices. Herein, we have studied the effect of the porosity of different counter electrodes on the performance of the hybrid photovoltaic supercapacitors. The photovoltaic supercapacitors were fabricated in one package with a simple structure including a titanium dioxide (TiO2) coated on fluorine-doped tin oxide (FTO) glass as a working electrode and polyaniline (PANI)-based gel electrolyte. The performance of the hybrid device was studied with four different counter electrodes: a multi-walled carbon nanotube (MWCNT) porous electrode, PEDOT:PSS coated on FTO glass, carbon monolithic electrode, and a carbon-based conductive fabric. The specific capacitance of the device with PEDOT:PSS coated FTO electrode was 255 mF/g in the dark and increased to be 274 mF/g under the light based on the mass of the gel. The hybrid device can be charged when the working electrode is illuminated. The variation in the open circuit voltage (DV) was reached 256 mV in 400 s under illumination, and the voltage drop was 4 mV (−4%) in 600 s of the dark. The current results of the hybrid photovoltaic supercapacitor, with a simple fabrication process and basic structure, are boosting the study for the electrode materials selection to enhance the performance of the hybrid device.
The bandgap tunability in methylammonium (MA) lead halide perovskites has motivated us to design a photoresistor array made of MAPbI3, MAPbBr1.5I1.5, and MAPbBr3. To pattern devices on the same substrate, a novel method of laser engraving the substrate was employed. In this method, first, an indium tin oxide (ITO) coated plastic substrate was laser engraved to make microchannels with a width of 50-100 µm. Capillary motion force was used to fill each channel with a different solution containing the perovskite precursors. The current-voltage characteristics of each sensor were studied under dark and light conditions. Light-emitting diodes with different wavelengths were used to study the response of each sensor to monochromic lights. The results are promising toward the fabrication of larger arrays of photosensors which potentially can be used for compact and integrated photospectrometers in lab-on-a-chip devices.
Increasing demand for low-cost devices has directed attention to developing simple methods for the deposition of solution-based semiconductors thin layers on various substrates. In recent years, 3D printing technologies have been known as a rapid, cost-effective technique for the deposition of a variety of materials. Here we employed pneumatic nozzle printing to make low-defect thin films of methylammonium lead iodide (MAPbI3) perovskite. The process parameters were optimized to control the crystallization condition. By using top-gate bottom-contact configuration, perovskite transistor on the silicon substrate was developed. The electrical properties of the fabricated transistor were measured under ambient light.
Dye sensitized solar cells (DSSCs) are electrochemical solar cells depending on dye molecules that absorbing the radiation and start generating the photoelectrons. DSSCs are the most harmonious device among the other types of solar cells to be coupled with the energy storage devices such as pseudocapacitors to make a solar-capacitor device because of their electrochemical nature. Pseudocapacitors are electrochemical devices that can store charges through the double layer structure and changing the oxidation state of conducting polymer materials (i.e. Polypyrrole, Ppy). The effect of adding methylene blue dye molecules (MB) to the solar capacitor device was absorbed in the previous work by recording the voltage of the composite materials Ppy+MB under the effect of illumination by 23 ∆mV. In this work, TiO2 as electron transport layer (ETL) was added to the anode electrode to facilitate the movement of photo generated electrons. The results of solar-capacitor device exhibited 570 ∆mV open circuit voltage under the effect of light condition in 400 s. The short circuit current results showed a 2 uA under the light condition. The presented results are hopeful to enhance the performance of solar energy and charge storage devices.
The integration of energy-harvesting and storage in a single device is considered to be one of the most demanding technologies for future wireless sensors. Photovoltaic supercapacitors are among promising solutions with the dual properties of photoelectric and electrochemical charge storage. In order to improve the efficiency in hybrid photovoltaic supercapacitors, most research has focused on studying electrode materials. In this work, we have studied the effect of polyaniline (PANI) concentration in a composite gel-based electrolyte on the impedance of the device. The photovoltaic supercapacitors were fabricated in a two-electrode configuration combining a titanium dioxide (TiO2) coated on fluorine-doped tin oxide (FTO) glass as the working electrode, a multi-walled carbon nanotube (MWCNT) porous electrode as the counter electrode, and a composite gel-based electrolyte. The composite gel was made of polyvinyl alcohol (PVA), hydrochloric acid (HCl), ammonium persulfate (APS), and different concentrations of aniline (ANI). The impedance study of the gel with 0.5 mM concentration of PANI showed a two-stage charge storage mechanism associated to the double-layer at the electrode-electrolyte interface and a pseudo-capacitive charge storage mechanism in the bulk of the electrolyte. The absorption spectrum of the synthesized gel shows a strong absorption peak near 780 nm confirming the formation of the emeraldine salt of PANI in the gel. The current results are inspiring the research for optimizing the composite material to improve both energy harvesting and the charge storage stability in photovoltaic supercapacitors.
In the past few years, with the advance of laser technology, laser engraving has been considered as an alternative method to traditional lithography in the fabrication of microfluidic devices. Considering solution-based method as the main technique for perovskite deposition, the capillary motion of perovskite precursor can be employed for filling a laser-engraved patterned conducting layer. Herein, we used CO2 laser micromachining for the fabrication of the perovskite photodetector. First, several microchannels were formed by laser engraving of indium tin oxide (ITO) coated polyethylene terephthalate (PET) substrates. Power, speed and frequency parameters of the laser were varied in order to achieve the desired channel roughness. The samples were characterized by scanning electron microscope (SEM) and potentiostat. The I-V characteristics and bode plots of the sample showed a capacitive and an inductive behavior. Finally, a simulation tool was used to analyze the experimental data. This approach offers a simple, rapid and low-cost fabrication method for perovskite photodetector and can be used in large-scale commercial application.
The reaction center (RC) protein from photosynthetic purple bacteria is an organic structure with the capability of absorbing photons at low light intensities and generating electron-hole pairs with a high efficiency. Application of this biomaterial for energy harvesting and sensor devices has been studied before. A key in employing RCs in an electrochemical device is to immobilize the proteins on an electrode. In this work, ion-sensitive field-effect transistors with Si3N4 and TaO2 gate insulator were tested to measure the success rate in immobilizing the proteins. The results show that by far Si3N4 is a better choice than TaO2, due to the effective self-assembly of the linker molecules. The density of the attached proteins to the Si3N4 transistor was estimated to be 5×109 proteins/cm2 by analyzing the drift in the threshold voltage of the transistor. The fabricated device also presented the feasibility of using the RCs in an integrated photo-transistor.
Integrating both electrochemical solar cells (harvesting energy) and supercapacitors (energy storage) into a single device is unquestionably one of the great challenges nowadays. There has been an extended research in the design and construction of integrated solar energy harvesting and storage systems that can simultaneously capture and store various forms of energies from nature. Here, we successfully designed, fabricated and characterized a compact and monolithically photoelectrochemical device combining a polyvinyl alcohol (PVA)/hydrochloric acid (HCl)- based gel electrolyte, multi-walled carbon nanotube (MWCNTs), and fluorine doped tin oxide (FTO) as counter and working electrodes, respectively. The combination device can act either as an independent solar cell, a supercapacitor, or as a solar cell/supercapacitor device. In this structure, energy harvesting takes place only at the working electrode (WE) that made of a thin film composite of a conducting polymer (i.e. Polyaniline, PANI) and synthetic dyes materials that coat on the FTO surface by electrochemical deposition technique. The energy storage occurs in both WE and counter electrode (CE) that made of (MWCNTs) in addition to the gel electrolyte materials. Different synthetic dyes have been used such as Methylene Blue (MB), Methyl Orange (MO), and Prussian Blue (PB). Among them, MB has shown the strongest photoelectrochemical reaction in HCl-PVA gel electrolyte. The cyclic voltammetry was used to show the effect of PANI/synthetic dyes on the cell, and impedance spectroscopy demonstrated the effect of surface modification of MWCNTs on the performance of the CE.
Flexible sensors offer advantages such as light weight, cost effective, the potential to be manufactured with roll-to-roll equipment and to be used in portable and wearable devices. To remain as a cost-effective device, there is a need to reduce fabrication process expenses while preserving high sensitivity and responsivity. In this paper we demonstrate a novel method for facile fabrication of lead halide perovskite photosensor on a flexible substrate with high sensitivity. Capillary motion of perovskite precursor was employed as a convenient and simple technique to create a patterned layer of perovskite. Scanning electron microscope was employed to characterize fabricated perovskite layer. Fabricated layer was used in an ITO-perovskite-ITO structure to be used as a photosensor. Electrical and optical characteristics of the device have been investigated. The responsivity and the sensitivity of the device at 2.0 V were measured to be 0.1 A/W and 172, respectively. Finally, optical properties of the fabricated device were compared with another photodetector fabricated by conventional lithography process. The photocurrent of the sample, made by utilizing capillary motion, at 2.0 V was found to be 211 nA which was 2.8 times higher than the photocurrent of the sample made by traditional method (76 nA at 2.0 V). This novel method has shown great potential for commercial application.
Photosensors are used for the detection of analytes in microfluidic devices. In order to detect materials with low concentrations, a sensor with high sensitivity is required. Perovskite has been studied extensively as a photoactive material in solar cells due to its wide absorption spectrum and low recombination rate of charges which also make it a suitable candidate for photosensors. In this work, the photoconductivity of the material in a thin-film resistor is studied. The resistance of the device is measured at different wavelengths and intensities. A significant change of the resistance is observed upon illumination indicating the adequacy of the device to serve as a photosensor. However, in this case, the perovskite layer must be protected with an insulating thin film to avoid undesired reactions and contacts. The perovskite film was also tested as an electrochemical photosensor. The current-voltage characteristics of the device showed a diode rectifying response both in dark and under illumination. In this case, the photo response of the device established promising results for applications in photosensors with a relatively high stability in a liquid media.
KEYWORDS: Polymers, Solar energy, Energy harvesting, Oxidation, Solar energy, Solar cells, Composites, Electrodes, Molecules, Electrons, Chemical elements
Energy storage is an essential ground for solar energy systems, particularly for the off-grid applications. Concurrent energy harvesting and charge storage in a photoactive supercapacitor has already been demonstrated. The key element in such a device is a conducting polymer which stores the charge via change in its redox states. In this work, we have studied the photoelectrochemical reactions in composites of polyaniline (PANI). We used the electrochemical deposition method for the polymer growth. The results of the current study indicate that the photo-reactivity of the materials largely depends on the electrolyte and the type of the dye molecule. Among different synthetic dyes, methylene blue has shown the strongest photoelectrochemical reaction in an HCl electrolyte. The cyclic voltammetry (CV) results showed that the amplitude of the redox peaks changes significantly upon illumination. The amount of stored charges in the polymer was estimated from the CV results. The results encourage the application of PANI for charge storage in a photoactive supercapacitor.
Dye sensitized solar cells (DSSCs) have shown promising results in the field of renewable energy owing to their low cost and portable features. In practical applications, their harvested energy could be stored in a supercapacitor once it exceeds the regular consumption. Various methods of manipulation of the active electrode have been examined to facilitate the energy storage of the system, whereas the counter electrode has always been known for its catalytic functionality and its contribution to the capacitive response of the device left a well-oriented study to be desired. In this work, the substitution of the platinum electrode with a specific porous electrode resulted in a supercapacitive behavior of the device. The photoactive electrode was fabricated using zinc oxide nanowires (ZnO) grown on a conductive transparent substrate with hydrothermal deposition method. The electrode was used to make a standard DSSC using a ruthenium dye, iodide/triiodide standard redox electrolyte, and a platinum counter electrode. The cyclic voltammetry (CV) study of the device showed a low capacitance with 350 mV open circuit voltage. Replacing the platinum counter electrode with a particularly designed porous paper-based carbon nanotube electrode resulted in a considerable difference in the CV response. A capacitive behavior was observed due to the large surface area of the counter electrode and the ZnO nanostructures on the photoactive electrode. Due to the large capacitance and relatively small photocurrent, the change in the open circuit voltage was limited. However, enhancement of the photocurrent could improve both the energy harvesting and charge storage in the device.
Due to the required established field to separate photogenerated electrons and holes, the current- voltage (I-V)
characteristic in almost all photovoltaic devices in dark is an exponential curve. Upon illumination, the shape of the
curve remains almost the same, but the current shifts due to the photocurrent. Also, because of the lack of any
storage mechanism, the I-V curve returns to the dark characteristic immediately after light cessation. Here, we are
reporting a case study performed on a photo-electric memory effect in an organic bulk hetrojuction device made of
ZnO nanowires as the electron transport layer under ambient conditions and within a sealed transfer box filled with
nitrogen. The I-V characteristic in dark and light showed a unique change from a rectifying response in dark to a
resistive behavior in light. Additionally, after light cessation, a memory effect was observed with a slow transition
from the resistive to rectifying response same as the original dark characteristic. The memory effect and its I-V
characteristics were tested for the two cases. For practical applications as a photo memory device, further
experiments are required to gain a better understanding of the mechanism behind the observed memory effect for the
two different cases.
Due to large variation of the solar energy availability in a day, energy storage is required in many applications when solar cells are used. However, application of external energy storage devices, such as batteries and supercapacitors, increases the cost of solar energy systems and requires additional charging circuitry. This combination is bulky and relatively expensive, which is not ideal for many applications. In this work, a novel idea is presented for making electrochemical devices with dual properties of solar energy harvesting and internal charge storage. The device is essentially a supercapacitor with a photoactive electrode. Energy harvesting occurs through light absorption at one of the electrodes made of a composite of a conducting polymer (i.e. PEDOT:PSS) and a Porphyrin dye. The energy storage takes place in the both photoactive and counter electrode (CE). We have studied the effect of the CE material on the device characteristics. Using Y-Carbon (a commercial available electrode), an open circuit voltage of 0.49 V was achieved in light across the cell with ~1 mF capacitance. The other two choices for CE were activated carbon and carbon nanotube based electrodes. The cyclic voltammetry and impedance spectroscopy demonstrated that the Y Carbon electrode was a better match.
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