The surface-bonding method of the fiber Bragg grating(FBG) sensor is easier to handle than embedding method. However surface bonded FBG sensors have the limitation of the signal characteristics being affected by the bonding layer. In this study, the effects of the bonding length on the surface installed FBG sensor signal characteristics under various load types were empirically investigated. To evaluate the stability of the signal characteristics of the FBG sensors, the strain transfer rate and the multiple peaks ratio of the reflected spectrum were calculated and compared. From the experimental results, the strain transfer ratio and multiple peaks ratio varied because of the different strain gradients formed depending on the applied load type. Therefore, it was found that the effective bonding length for respective load types need to be determined to get a stable signal from the surface bonded FBG sensors.
Composite materials provide many advantages over conventional materials including metals, especially for space applications. However, composites have failure modes that are complex and difficult to identify, and various cracks and delamination are predominantly difficult to detect visually. In this regard, an effective method of monitoring the integrity of composite materials and structures exposed to hazardous space environments is necessary to ensure the long-term reliability of composite materials in aerospace applications. FBG sensors are advantageous for space applications due to their immunity to various environments. In this study, FBG sensors were used to investigate LEO environment exposure monitoring of CFRP.
A low velocity impact onto a composite structure can result in the occurrence of barely visible impact damage (BVID), which is difficult to detect. Therefore, the low velocity impact monitoring of composite structures is highly desirable for impact detection and localization. In this paper, low velocity impacts on a composite wing under a simulated wing loading condition were monitored using six multiplexed fiber Bragg grating (FBG) sensors and localized using error outlier based impact localization algorithm. The impact response signals from the FBG sensors were sampled at a rate of 100 kHz using high-speed interrogator. The impacts were localized with an average error of 18.4 mm.
Applications of composite materials in aerospace structures is increasing due to the outstanding properties, however, monitoring such composite structures exposed to harsh environments is still a posing issue. Low Earth orbit space structures are exposed to property degradation and damage from high-degree vacuum, ultraviolet radiation, thermal cycling, and atomic oxygen attack which are detrimental to composite materials. In this study, FBG sensors for embedding in CFRP composite plates in different thickness locations to provide health and damage monitoring of the material exposed to such environments regarding the overall health of the material with a focus on the exposed surface are explored in comparison to conventional FBG sensors.
Fiber optic sensors are being spotlighted as the means to monitoring aircraft conditions due to their excellent
characteristics. This paper presents an affordable structural health monitoring system based on a fiber Bragg grating
sensor (FBG) for application in light aircrafts. A total of 24 FBG sensors were installed in the main wing of the test bed
aircraft. In the ground test, the intactness of the installed sensors and device operability were confirmed. During the
flight test, the strain and temperature responses of the wing structure were measured by the on-board low-speed FBG
interrogator. The measured strains were successfully converted into the flight load history through the load calibration
coefficient obtained from the ground calibration test.
Recently, health and usage monitoring systems (HUMS) are being studied to monitor the real-time condition of aircrafts during flight. HUMSs can prevent aircraft accidents and reduce inspection time and cost. Fiber Bragg grating (FBG) sensors are widely used for aircraft HUMSs with many advantages such as light weight, small size, easy-multiplexing, and EMI immunity. However, commercial FBG interrogators are too expensive to apply for small aircrafts. Generally the cost of conventional FBG interrogators is over $20,000. Therefore, cost-effective FBG interrogation systems need to be developed for small aircraft HUMSs. In this study, cost-effective low speed FBG interrogator was applied to full-scale small aircraft wing structure to examine the operational applicability of the low speed FBG interrogator to the monitoring of small aircrafts. The cost of the developed low speed FBG interrogator was about $10,000, which is an affordable price for a small aircraft. 10 FBG strain sensors and 1 FBG temperature sensor were installed on the surface of the full-scale wing structure. Load was applied to the tip of the wing structure, and the low speed interrogator detected the change in the center wavelength of the FBG sensors at the sampling rate of 10Hz. To assess the applicability of the low-cost FBG interrogator to full-scale small aircraft wing structure, a temperature-compensated strain measurement algorithm was verified experimentally under various loading conditions of the wing structure with temperature variations.
Optical fibers can be used as promising sensors in smart structures due to their novel characteristics. This paper presents
a wavelength division multiplexing (WDM) technique in order to improve the application capacity of single reflective
grating based fiber optic sensors to monitor large industrial structures at multiple points. The models are appropriate for
the general extrinsic fiber optic sensors such as the grating panel-based fiber optic sensor. The manufactured WDM fiber
optic sensor system was examined in order to demonstrate the feasibility for two parameter detections at two points using
mirror mounted grating based fiber optic sensor.
This paper discusses an applicable fiber-optic accelerometer composed of a transmissive grating panel, a reflection mirror, and two optical fibers with a separation of quarter grating pitch as transceivers that monitor the low-frequency accelerations of civil engineering structures. This sensor structure brings together the advantages of both a simple sensor structure, which leads to simplified cable design by 50% in comparison with the conventional transmission-type fiber optic accelerometer, and a stable reflected signals acquisition with repeatability in comparison to the researched grating-reflection type fiber optic accelerometer. The vibrating displacement and sinusoidal acceleration measured from the proposed fiber optic sensor demonstrated good agreement with those of a commercial laser displacement sensor and a MEMS accelerometer without electromagnetic interference. The developed fiber optic accelerometer can be used in frequency ranges below 4.0 Hz with a margin of error that is less than 5% and a high sensitivity of 5.06 rad/(m/s)2.
Because of the higher attenuation of AE signal in composite materials, it is required to develop a damage assessment
technique less affected by the signal intensity in order to use AE signals for damage detection. In this research, we
investigated impact induced AE signals using FBG sensors on carbon epoxy composite panel. The frequency
characteristics of impact AE signals were examined with wavelet decomposition focused on the leading wave.
Consequently, we established a damage assessment technique using the sharing percentage of the wavelet detail
components of AE signal, and conducted a low-velocity impact test on composite laminates to confirm the feasibility of
the damage assessment method with FBG sensors.
Optical fibers can be used as a promising sensors in smart structures thanks to their novel characteristics. In particular,
its immunity to electromagnetic interference (EMI) makes the sensor suitable for use in electronic environments. In
order to inspect the reliability of a structure, it is essential to characterize the dynamic responses of the structure. An
accelerometer associated with optical fiber makes it possible to conduct real-time structural health monitoring under high
electromagnetic environments. This paper describes an optimal design of a novel fiber optic accelerometer using one
grating panel for the application to civil engineering structures. The fiber optic sensor design was optimized to have the
best sensitivity to the motion of the reflective grating using two optical fibers in the quadrature. The reflected optical
signal of the sensor is influenced by the reflective grating pattern and optical fiber-grating distance. In this paper, several
simulations and experiments were carried out to evaluate the characteristics of the output signals according to the grating
pattern and the distance between the optical fiber and the grating for a fixed fiber core diameter. Through comparison of
the results between the simulations and the experiments, the optimum design of the grating-pattern was determined to
obtain a stable and periodic sine wave as the output signal. Furthermore, it was demonstrated that the output signals
reflected by one grating panel could be used for the final parameter-measurement.
This paper reports the development of a low-cost inductively coupled passive wireless strain sensor which can be easily embedded within composite prepreg layers for structural health monitoring application. The sensor response shows great linearity, low hysteresis and drift, and sufficient sensing range for wireless interrogation. The sensor sensitivity is found to be relatively low, but with some modifications on the sensor pattern design approximately three-fold increase in sensitivity is obtained. The investigation on both sensor array and sensor directivity verifies its potential to be developed as wireless rosette strain sensor. In addition, mechanical tests are performed. Among the tested mechanical properties, the interlaminar shear strength of composite specimens degrades the most upon sensor embedment. Finally, an analytical model is developed. Its normalized resonant frequency shift due to strain change agrees well with the experimental result.
It is widely known that materials exposed to the severe low earth orbit (LEO) environment undergo degradations. For the
evaluation of fiber Bragg grating (FBG) sensors in the LEO environment, the reflective spectrum change and the Bragg
wavelength shift of FBG sensor were measured during aging cycles simulating the LEO environment. The LEO
environment was simulated by high vacuum (~10-5 Torr), ultraviolet (UV) radiation (<200nm wavelength), temperature
cycling (-30°C~100°C), and atomic oxygen atmosphere (AO flux of 9.12×1014 atoms/cm2/s and kinetic energy of ~0.04
eV). FBG sensor arrays were embedded into the graphite/epoxy composite material. Through the aging cycles simulated
for the LEO environment, the change in the reflective spectrums and the Bragg wavelengths from FBG sensors were
investigated.
Lamb wave is a good method to detect some imperfections in a thin plate. In order to use this method, a sensor as well as an actuator is needed. Usually, a piezoceramic transducer is a good sensor and also a good actuator. Nowadays, fiber optic sensors are good alternative transducers for detecting Lamb wave as well as other ultrasonic waves. However, in the case of the fiber optic sensor, its sensitivity has directivity; that is, the sensitivity is variable according to the alignment direction of the sensor because the sensor dominantly measures the displacement induced by the change of gage length along the parallel direction to the sensor. Thus, considering the change of the sensitivity with respect to the alignment direction of the sensor to an ultrasonic source is essential in order to detect the ultrasonic wave using a fiber optic sensor and to determine the absolute amount of the measured value correctly. In this paper, the directivity of the fiber optic sensor was investigated through both a theoretical analysis and an experimental one. The theoretical analysis showed that the sensitivity was related to the alignment angle of the sensor and to the ratio (L/λ)of the gage length (L) of the sensor and the wavelength (λ) of the Lamb wave. In the experimental analysis, an extrinsic Fabry-Perot interferometric sensor was used for detecting the Lamb waves which were excited by a lot of piezoceramic transducers. One fiber optic sensor was attached on the center of the aluminum plate; otherwise these piezoceramic transducers were attached around the fiber optic sensor according to the alignment direction of the fiber optic sensor. Finally, the theoretical results were verified in the experimental analysis.
An optical fiber sensor to simultaneously measure strain and temperature was designed and embedded into an adaptive composite laminate which exhibits a shape change upon thermal activation. The sensor is formed by two fiber Bragg gratings, which are written in optical fibers with different core dopants. The two gratings were spliced close to each other and a sensing element resulted with Bragg gratings of similar strain sensitivity but different response to temperature. This is due to the dependence of the fiber thermo-optic coefficient on core dopants and relative concentrations. The sensor was tested on an adaptive composite laminate made of unidirectional Kevlar-epoxy pre-preg plies. Several 150μm diameter pre-strained NiTiCu shape memory alloy wires were embedded in the composite laminate together with one fiber sensor. Simultaneous monitoring of strain and temperature during the curing process and activation in an oven was demonstrated.
For the translation stage of nanometer scale, fiber optic EFPI sensor is suggested for the feedback control system on account of its high sensitivity, small size, simple system and relatively low cost. The novel signal processing algorithm for the real-time demodulation of EFPI output signal was developed and verified. The local linearity in the adjacent fringe values was shown, and used for the sinusoidal approximation of the nonlinear output signal. The real-time signal processing program was designed and the intensity signal of the EFPI sensor was demodulated to the phase shift with this program. The theoretical resolution of 0.36~8.6 nm in the displacement range of 0~200 μm was obtained. The sensor system was applied to the 1-D nano-positioner with a Piezo-electric actuator. The positioner successfully reached to the desired destination within 1 nm accuracy.
Impact location monitoring is one of the major concerns of the smart health monitoring. For this application, multipoint ultrasonic sensors are to be employed. In this study, a multiplexed FBG sensor system with wide dynamic range was proposed and stabilization controlling system was also developed for the maintenance of maximum sensitivity of sensors. For the intensity demodulation system of FBG sensors, Fabry-Perot tunable filter (FP-TF) with 23.8 nm FSR (free spectral range) was used, which behaves as two separate filters between 1530 ~ 1560 nm range. Two FBG sensors were attached on the bottom side of the graphite/epoxy composite beam specimen, and low velocity impact tests were performed to detect the one-dimensional impact locations. Impact locations were calculated by the arrival time differences of the impact longitudinal waves acquired by the two FBGs. As a result, multiplexed in-line FBG sensors could detect the moment of impact precisely and found the impact locations with the average error of 1.32 mm.
To perform the real-time health monitoring of the smart composite structures, two fiber optic sensor systems are proposed, that can measure the strain and detect the moment of fracture simultaneously. The types of the coherent sources used for fracture signal detection classify the systems--EDFA with FBG and EDFA with Fabry-Perot filter, and these systems were applied to extrinsic Fabry-Perot interferometer sensors imbedded in composite specimens to monitor the tensile tests. To understand the characteristics of matrix cracking signals, at first, we performed tensile tests using surface attached PZT sensors. This paper describes the implementation of time-frequency analysis such as short time Fourier-transform for the quantitative evaluation of the fracture signals like matrix cracking. From the test of tensile load monitoring using optical fiber sensor systems, measured strain agreed with the value of electric strain gage and the fracture detection system could detect the moment of damage with high sensitivity to recognize the onset of micro-crack fracture signals.
Advanced composites are being extensively used for aerospace structures due to the high stiffness to weight and high strength to weight ratios. Measuring internal strings of composite structures is of great interest with respect to the structural integrity of aerospace structures. A large number of sensors are required for large-scale structures such as aircraft. Fiber Bragg grating (FBG) sensor system based on the wavelength division multiplexing (WDM) technology offers a versatile and powerful one for strain monitoring of large structures due to the advantage of multiplexing capability. In this paper, we present an improved FBG sensor system using a wavelength-swept fiber laser (WSFL). The WSFL provides unique and powerful output characteristics useful for a large number of sensor interrogations without any other expensive optic devices such as optical switches. As a practical application of aircraft structures, we demonstrate 24 FBG sensors were used to monitor strains of the smart composite wing box model in the bending test. 3 sensor lines are embedded into upper skin and 1 sensor line is embedded into front spar of composite wing box. Each sensor line has 6 FBG for the strain sensing and 1 reference FBG for temperature compensation. Experimental results are compared with finite element analytical results. The structural bending behavior of composite wing box monitored by FBG sensors shows an almost same tendency with the analytical result. All strain data can be real-timely visualized and saved in PC.
Fabrication strains during cure can lead to warpage or spring-back, which presents difficulties in the assembly of composite structures and residual stresses due to differences of thermal expansion coefficients between fiber and matrix in cooling stage can have intense effects on the mechanical properties of the composite product. The quality of the final composite part is directly affected by cure time, temperature, and pressure. The knowledge of cure process is very helpful to obtain high quality composites at reduced producing cost. Therefore, sensors capable of monitoring the cure process are desired and fiber optic sensors are the good candidate for cure monitoring of composite materials. In this paper, we present the simultaneous monitoring of the fabrication strain and temperature during the composite cure process by using fiber optic sensors. Fiber Bragg grating/extrinsic Fabry-Perot interferometric (FBG/EFPI) hybrid sensors are used to monitor those measurands. The characteristic matrix of the sensor is analytically derived and measurements can be done without sensor calibration for each experiment. A wavelength-swept fiber laser is utilized as a light source. FBG/EFPI sensors are embedded in graphite/epoxy composite laminates at different direction and different location. We perform the real time monitoring of fabrication strains and temperatures at two points of composite laminates during cure process in an autoclave. Through this experiment, we can provide a basis for the efficient smart processing of composites.
In this paper, we present an improved fiber Bragg grating (FBG) sensor system using a wavelength-swept fiber laser (WSFL). The WSFL provides unique and functional output characteristics useful for sensor interrogations. Proper monitoring of measurands in FBG sensor systems requires accurate measurement of the Bragg center wavelength, and the ability to track rapid shifts of the wavelength. For the purpose, we constructed a signal processing board with an electrical circuit and real-time signal-processing program using Labview software for storage and visualizing of the data. To improve its ability to acquire massive sensor signals, multi-channel sensor arrays were also constructed. The constructed FBG sensor system using WSFL and the real-time signal-processing program could successfully measure the strains of a composite laminated beam at nine sensing points. As a practical application of infrastructure, we demonstrate four FBG sensors in an optical fiber were used to monitor strains of the smart bridge model. When the smart bridge shows the response of near certain level of strain, the bridge tells early warning sound. This early warning system could give you time to undertake remedial works on bridges before the catastrophic disaster.
The fiber optic extrinsic Fabry-Perot sensor was embedded in composite beam to sense the strain and failure of composite structures. A tensile test was performed to confirm the strain sensitivity of the fiber optic sensor embedded in composite specimens. The strain sensitivity of the extrinsic Fabry-Perot sensor showed very good agreement with the theoretical value. The bending deformation and matrix cracking were investigated through four-point bending tests of cross-ply composite beams with embedded fiber optic extrinsic Fabry-Perot sensor. The failure due to matrix cracks in the composite beam was confirmed by an edge replica method. The strain and failure signals were separated by digital filtering from the signal of fiber optic sensor. The failure instants were obviously noticeable from the failure signal obtained from the fiber optic signal by high pass filtering. The dominant failure strain of the composite beam was determined by strain signal obtained by low pass filtering.
The bending deformation and matrix cracking were investigated by conducting a four-point bending test for a cross-ply composite beam with an embedded fiber optic Michelson sensor. The fiber optic Michelson interferometric sensor was constructed and embedded in the composite beam. The failure of composite beam, due to the matrix cracking, was successfully detected by the fiber optic sensor and the matrix crack in the composite beam was confirmed by an edge replica method. The characteristics of the failure signals from the fiber optic sensor were studied. The strain and failure signals of the composite beam were separated by digital filtering of the signal from the fiber optic sensor. The failure was obviously detectable by the failure signal filtered from the optical signal.
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