This study analyzes the elevated temperature tensile results of SLM IN718 as a function of strain rate and test temperature in order to better understand the temporal and thermal aspects of environmental sensitivity. Fully heat-treated SLM samples are directly compared to wrought material and corresponding industry standards in order to provide a valuable perspective on the current state of SLM capabilities. It is found that SLM material tested across all conditions have inferior strength and ductility compared to wrought material of the same heat treatment. Strength variation is attributed to different sizes of the primary strengthening phase, γ’’, while ductility variation is caused by environmental sensitivity. SLM samples show evidence of brittle intergranular fracture, crack growth, and oxidized NbC particles on the fracture surface. These features are intensified with decreasing strain rate and increasing temperature. EBSD-generated misorientation maps and strain rate sensitivity calculations demonstrate that the mechanism of plastic deformation is similar between the two processing conditions but wrought material has a greater overall damage tolerance. Premature failure attributed to intergranular crack growth leads to poor ductility in SLM material. Faster strain rates and lower temperatures are shown to improve the ductility in SLM IN718 but despite this recovery it remains susceptible to environmental attack even in the extreme cases of the current study. Sources of environmental sensitivity and the degree to which they affect elevated temperature mechanical properties are discussed.
Research on the selective laser melting (SLM) method of laser powder bed fusion additive manufacturing (AM) has shown that surface and internal quality of AM parts is directly related to machine settings such as laser energy density, scanning strategies, and atmosphere. To optimize laser parameters for improved component quality, the energy density is typically controlled via laser power, scanning rate, and scanning strategy, but can also be controlled by changing the spot size via laser focal plane shift. Present work being conducted by The Aerospace Corporation was initiated after observing inconsistent build quality of parts printed using OEM-installed settings. Initial builds of Inconel 718 witness geometries using OEM laser parameters were evaluated for surface roughness, density, and porosity while varying energy density via laser focus shift. Based on these results, hardware and laser parameter adjustments were conducted in order to improve build quality and consistency. Tensile testing was also conducted to investigate the effect of build plate location and laser settings on SLM 718. This work has provided insight into the limitations of OEM parameters compared with optimized parameters towards the goal of manufacturing aerospace-grade parts, and has led to the development of a methodology for laser parameter tuning that can be applied to other alloy systems. Additionally, evidence was found that for 718, which derives its strength from post-manufacturing heat treatment, there is a possibility that tensile testing may not be perceptive to defects which would reduce component performance. Ongoing research is being conducted towards identifying appropriate testing and analysis methods for screening and quality assurance.
The effect of laser remelting of surfaces of as-built Selective Laser Melted (SLM) Inconel 625 was evaluated for its potential to improve the surface roughness of SLM parts. Many alloys made by SLM have properties similar to their wrought counterparts, but surface roughness of SLM-made parts is much higher than found in standard machine shop operations. This has implications for mechanical properties of SLM materials, such as a large debit in fatigue properties, and in applications of SLM, where surface roughness can alter fluid flow characteristics. Because complexity and netshape fabrication are fundamental advantages of Additive Manufacturing (AM), post-processing by mechanical means to reduce surface roughness detracts from the potential utility of AM. Use of a laser to improve surface roughness by targeted remelting or annealing offers the possibility of in-situ surface polishing of AM surfaces- the same laser used to melt the powder could be amplitude modulated to smooth the part during the build. The effects of remelting the surfaces of SLM Inconel 625 were demonstrated using a CW fiber laser (IPG: 1064 nm, 2-50 W) that is amplitude modulated with a pulse profile to induce remelting without spallation or ablation. The process achieved uniform depth of melting and improved surface roughness. The results show that with an appropriate pulse profile that meters the heat-load, surface features such as partially sintered powder particles and surface connected porosity can be mitigated via a secondary remelting/annealing event.
The mechanical properties and microstructures of Selective Laser Melted (SLM) alloy 625 procured from different suppliers were compared. The post-SLM process of hot isostatic pressing (HIP) led to a relatively coarse recrystallized gamma matrix phase that was similar in all the suppliers’ materials, resulting in nearly identical tensile properties. These similarities obscure significant differences between them with respect to the population of second phase particles, which consisted of carbides or Laves phase. During solidification, the final liquid phase is concentrated in Nb, Mo, Si and C, and leads to L → γ + carbide/Laves eutectic reactions. Secondary particles are very small prior to HIP and their composition has not been analyzed yet, but are limited to the fine-grained eutectic regions of the material prior to HIP. During HIP the gamma phase recrystallizes to remove the original as-solidified SLM microstructure, but secondary particles nucleate and grow where their elemental constituents first solidified, leading to a non-homogeneous distribution. Quasi-static tensile properties do not appear to be sensitive to these differences, but it is likely that other mechanical properties will be affected, especially fatigue and fracture behavior. Surface roughness, large grain size, and pores and voids left unhealed by the HIP cycle will also influence fatigue and fracture. Surface roughness and porosity in particular are features that could be improved by implementing novel approaches to laser processing in SLM.
The influence of the Low-Earth orbit (LEO) environment on the mechanical strength of silicon carbide (SiC) was evaluated on two flight experiments as part of the Materials on the International Space Station Experiment (MISSE). SiC samples for modulus of rupture (MOR) and equibiaxial flexural strength (EFS) testing were flown on the Optical and Reflector Materials experiments (ORMatE) as part of MISSE-6 (launched on STS-123, March 2008; returned on STS-128, September 2009) and MISSE-7 (launched on STS-129, November 2009; returned on STS- 134, June 2011). Two different SiC vendors provided material for each flight experiment. The goal of the experiments was to measure mechanical properties of the flight samples and compare them to an equal number of similar samples in control and traveler sample sets. Complete characterization of the strength of brittle materials typically requires many more test specimens than could be reasonably accommodated on the ORMatE sample tray and statistical models based on few samples include large uncertainties. Understanding the results of the mechanical tests of MISSE samples required comparison to results from a statistically valid number of samples. Prior testing by The Aerospace Corporation of material supplied by the same four vendors was used to evaluate the MISSE results, including flight and control samples. The results showed that exposure to LEO over the durations covered by MISSE 6 and 7 (approximately 18 and 20 months, respectively) did not alter the mechanical strength of the silicon carbide for any of the vendors’ materials.
The Aerospace Corporation is developing a space qualification method for silicon carbide optical systems that covers
material verification through system development. One of the initial efforts has been to establish testing protocols for
material properties. Three different tests have been performed to determine mechanical properties of SiC: modulus of
rupture, equibiaxial flexural strength and fracture toughness. Testing materials and methods have been in accordance
with the respective ASTM standards. Material from four vendors has been tested to date, as part of the MISSE flight
program and other programs. Data analysis has focused on the types of issues that are important when building actual
components- statistical modeling of test results, understanding batch-to-batch or other source material variations, and
relating mechanical properties to microstructures. Mechanical properties are needed as inputs to design trade studies and
development and analysis of proof tests, and to confirm or understand the results of non-destructive evaluations of the
source materials. Measuring these properties using standardized tests on a statistically valid number of samples is
intended to increase confidence for purchasers of SiC spacecraft components that materials and structures will perform
as intended at the highest level of reliability.
Over the last few years significant progress has been made in the development of silicon carbide (SiC) for mirror
applications. These improvements include lightweighting techniques, higher production yields, and larger diameter
apertures. It is now necessary to evaluate and address the systems engineering challenges facing this material to ensure
space qualification and integration into future space applications. This paper highlights systems engineering challenges,
suggests areas of future development, and proposes a systematic path forward that will outline necessary steps to space
qualify this new material.
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