Optical image sensing through turbid seawater is one of the most challenging problems in underwater vision for underwater robotic vehicles (URVs). In this article, we intend to briefly review the basic of underwater optical imaging for a start. For more advanced systems, there are two major techniques: time discrimination (lidar imaging, or range-gated) and spatial discrimination (scanning method). Here, we present our underwater lidar imaging (UWLI) experimental system which give very clear revelation of "sliced-view" phenomenon in a 3m tank with very turbid water (1.0/m). And then, we suggest an underwater Lidar PanCam system, which is the combination of the two major techniques above and based on photo-mosaicing approach.
Video cameras are standard equipment on, practically, all of today's underwater robotics vehicles. As a part of a camera system setting, the arrangement of active illumination affects the quality of acquisition, particularly in turbid water environment. Large illumination volume helps to increase image brightness but depresses modulated contrast. This paper elaborates on the effects of illumination volume due to the forward and backward scattering progresses. An intensity model is proposed to include the geometrical parameters of the illumination setup. This model is based on the volume scattering function (VSF) and Lambertian reflection effects. The distribution of scattering noise in the image is predicted for different size of light beam. Experiments were conducted in a short water tank using a continuous wave, 532nm laser light source with an adjustable parallel beam output. In application, as laser beam scanning is a well-known method to improve underwater visibility, the theoretical model helps in determining the optimum illumination setting in different water conditions, and accordingly reducing the time of photomosaicing.
When doing underwater lidar imaging (UWLI) in highly turbid water, its ICCD camera must be set in fast-gating status. As less than 50 ns, most gated-ICCD will become non-linear, which is difficult to be tested. In order to evaluate fast- gating performance in UWLI, we suggest a new technical term Depth of Gating (DOG) for depicting fast-gating feature of UWLI system, and design a novel underwater 3D-target for taking on DOG measurement. Our underwater 3D-target consists of a series of three bar test targets (five in total) at intervals of 22.5 cm roughly along, but separated on a section across, the laser illumination direction. The gap between two round trip times to two neighbor targets is 2ns for 22.5 cm interval, 4ns for (22.5 cm X 2) interval, etc. since the light speed in water is 22.5 cm/ns. From our experimental study, it is shown that using the underwater 3D-target designed in such a way is a practical and efficient method to measure short DOG value in UWLI system. We may simply name it 'underwater DOG-target.'
Although developments of Remotely Operated Vehicles have been rapid, the underwater robot vision is still regarded as a major tough undertaking when being maneuvered by a remote pilot, particularly in turbid water condition. Sonar imaging offers a large range for detection but often falls short in achieving the required resolution for identification. Normal optical image method such as underwater camera offers inherently high resolution capability, but the absorption and scattering characteristic of marine medium severely limits range performance, e.g. the visible range in Singapore coastline area is 2-3 meter. Currently, an experimental underwater laser gated-ranging system for underwater robot vision has been finished and precisely demonstrated ns-level gated images in highly turbid waters. We are first to study in such a 3-m short water tank with highly turbid waters successfully, and show the range-gated phenomenon much more clearly based on our newly-designed series targets. The target-set is a series of three bar test targets at intervals of 22.5 cm since the light speed in water is 22.5 cm/ns. We synchronize to range-gate on the targets which we want to have its image, and to gate out the targets which we don't want its image. The attenuation coefficient in the turbid water tank is 1.0/m and 2.3/m separately.
Based on a newly-designed serial target, we firstly demonstrate the underwater LIDAR imaging in such a 3m short water tank with highly turbid waters successfully, and show the range-gated phenomenon in water much more clearly. The target-set comprises a series of three bar test targets, which are set at intervals of 22.5cm roughly along the laser illumination direction since the light speed in water is 22.5 cm/ns. We synchronize precisely the UWLI system to range-gate on the targets which we want to capture their images, and to range-gate out the targets which we don't want their images. The attenuation coefficients in waters are 1.0/m and 2.3/m. Compared with non-gated case, the most distinct difference between the gates images and non-gated im ages in turbid water is that the nearer the target is located, the clearer its image is on the non-gated photos, but for the gated case the situation will be inverted completely when the delay time is adjusted suitably; that is, the image of the farther target could be much clearer than the image of the nearer target even in very turbid water.
Although developments of underwater robotics vehicles (URV) have been rapid in recent years, the underwater vision sensing is still regarded as a major tough undertaking, particularly in turbid water condition. Currently, a Underwater Lidar Imaging (UWLI) sensing system has been finished and demonstrated nano-second level gated images in highly turbid water. It permits to keep underwater vision sensor with optical resolution but reduce the optical scattering noise in water dramatically. Based on our newly- designed series targets at intervals of 22.5cm, we are first to study UWLI in such a 3m short tank successfully. The system could be synchronized precisely to range-gate the targets which we want to have its image, and to gate out the targets which we don't want its image. The attenuation coefficients of highly turbid waters are 1.0/m and 2.3/m. Compared with non-gated photos, the most distinct difference between the gated imaged and non-gate images in turbid water is that the nearer the target is located, the clearer its image is on the non-gated photos, but for the gated case the situation will be inverted completely when the time-delay is set suitably, i.e. the image of the farther target could be much clearer than the image of the nearer target in very turbid water.
We are first to demonstrate the underwater lidar imaging (UWLI) in such a 3 m short water tank with highly turbid water successfully, and show the range-gated phenomenon in water much more clearly based on our newly designed serial targets. The target set comprises a series of three bar test targets (five in total), which are set at intervals of 22.5 cm roughly along the laser illumination direction since the light speed in water is 22.5 cm/ns. We synchronize precisely (approximately 0.5 ns) the UWLI system to range-gate on the targets which we want to capture their images, and to range- gate out the targets which we do not want their images. The attenuation coefficients in water are 1.0/m and 2.3/m (extremely turbid). Compared with non-gated case, the most distinct difference between the gated images and non-gated images in turbid water is that the nearer the target is located, the clearer its image is on the non-gated photos, but for the gated case the situation will be inverted completely when the delay time is adjusted suitably; that is, the image of the farther target could be much clearer than the image of the nearer target even in very turbid water.
In this paper, a portable sensing system is developed using fiber optic spectroscopy principle for measuring and detecting of stresses induced in plants due to nutrient deficiencies. Chlorophyll fluorescence in plants is used to monitor the effects of nutrient stress in plants. As this method aims at providing an early detection and warning of nutrient deficiencies, it gives an alternative to argument current semi-quantitative and destructive methods of nutrient analysis. Our early papers had demonstrated significant differences in the color reflectance of plants' leaves when plants were subjected to various nutrient- deficient media. Developed using off-the-shelf components, this digital sensing optical system could measure and detect the slight variation in the plants' reflectance and hence its chlorophyll levels. These relative levels of chlorophyll are determined by measuring the plants' color reflectance of light while using the wavelength of the healthy plants as a reference for comparison. This system comprises of a miniature spectrometer containing 1024 CCD detectors covering a visible light spectrum of wavelength ranging from approximately 400 nm to 800 nm and a reflective probe. A laptop with a PCMCIA A/D data acquisition card is used in conjunction with a customized program.
In this paper, fiber optic spectrophotometry (FOSpectr) was adapted to provide early detection of plant nutrient deficiency by measuring leaf spectral reflectance variation resulting from nutrient stress. Leaf reflectance data were obtained form a local vegetable crop, Brassica chinensis var parachinensis (Bailey), grown in nitrate-nitrogen (N)- and calcium (Ca)- deficient hydroponics nutrient solution. FOSpectr analysis showed significant differences in leaf reflectance within the first four days after subjecting plants to nutrient-deficient media. Recovery of the nutrient-stressed plants could also be detected after transferring them back to complete nutrient solution. In contrast to FOSpectr, plant response to nitrogen and calcium deficiency in terms of reduced growth and tissue elemental levels was slower and less pronounced. Thus, this study demonstrated the feasibility of using FOSpectr methodology as a non-destructive alternative to augment current methods of plant nutrient analysis.
Using Fiber Optic Spectro-Photometry (FOSP) methodology, a set of high sensitivity fiber optic oxygen monitoring system performing NDT is developed for fish farming environment. The working principle of the sensor is based on the detection signal at a particular wavelength due to the fluorescence and quenching of coated dye (ruthenium complex) in response to oxygen concentration at the tip of the probe. This paper looks into the application of fiber optics oxygen sensor in an aquatic environment. A comparison study of the optical probe was made with a conventional electrochemical oxygen sensor. Both sensors were setup to monitor the dissolved oxygen of an aquatic system for a period of time. This new methodology offers an alternative choice for monitoring dissolved oxygen. Apart from the possibility to miniaturize the monitoring equipment for aquatic environment, it is also feasible to 'bundle' other chemical sensors together into one single cable, thus achieving compactness, effectiveness and yet without forgoing whatever the traditional electrochemical sensors could offer.
One possibility for communicating from an airplane above water surface to submarine in sea involves the use of laser- generated underwater sound. Because the air-submarine communication should be in the sea-environment i.e. very large volume of water, higher photoacoustic coefficient is the first important factor to be considered. Solid state laser Nd:YAG as one kind of high-power laser is possible for this application, since it has such advantages: (1) high power to do optical breakdown in water, (2) compact for airborne; (3) 1.06 (mu) IR beam being absorbed strongly by water but still penetrating into water a bit in depth, it will be good for making a sound source under water-surface. In this paper, we introduce the way to generate strong optical breakdown acoustic signal in a limited large volume of water in lab. The optical breakdown mechanism of strong Nd:YAG laser pulse (6 - 8 ns; max 600 mj/p) with water generates acoustic signals in water having pulse widths about 25 microsecond(s) and a frequency spectrum peak about 58 kHz. And, its sound source level of 196 dB for low frequencies less than 58 kHz is to be detected at a distance deep in water. Also, special new requirements are mentioned for solid state laser's designer.
Recent decades blue-green laser submarine communication (LSC) system has been developed as an important inter-medium transmission method for submarine communication. But the developed LSC system has only one-way communication from an air platform to a submerged platform. In this paper, we introduce a novel optical system, i.e. underwater modulable hollow retro-reflector (UMHRR) in ocean, for a new possible SLC system in future. The new system may establish a round optical link channel and allows for two-way communication from air to submarine and back. Also, we firstly develop an UMHRR for a potential application such as an underwater optical beacon.
One possibility for communicating from an airplane above water surface to submarine in sea involves the use of laser- generated sound. In this paper, we introduce the way to generate strong optical breakdown acoustic signal in a limited large volume of water but enough to do basic work in air- submarine communication realm. The optical breakdown mechanism of strong Nd:YAG laser pulse with water generates acoustic signals in water having pulse widths about 25 microseconds and a frequency spectrum peak about 58 kHz. And, its sound source level (SSL) of 196 dB for low frequencies less than 58 kHz is sufficient to be detected at far distant deep in water. This makes a stride for pursuing the feasibility of laser-acoust air-submarine communication.
One possibility for communicating from an airplane above water surface to submarinein sea involves the use of laser-generated sound. In previous work, optical breakdown laser-acoustic pulses in fresh water have been studied and in intense sound source has been excited. In this paper, five kinds of salt water having salinities 1.3%, 2.6%, 3.9%, 5.2% and 6.5% (max salinity of seawater near 4.0%), have been broken down to generate underwater acoustic pulse signals by Q-switched YAG- Nd laser with different pulse energies. After detail analyzing both in time domain and frequency domain, the fact that the salinity of water does not have much influence on laser- acoustic pulse signal would be found. Also, some slight but interesting differences due to different salinity are introduced.
Recent decades blue-green laser submarine communication (LSC) system has been developed as an important inter-medium transmission method for submarine communication. But the developed LSC system has only one-way communication from an air platform to a submerged platform. In this paper, a novel method is introduced for a new possible two-way LSOctober 1, 1998C system in future. All underwater modulable hollow retro-reflector in ocean has been developed for this purpose. The new system may establish a round optical link channel and allows for two-way communication from air to submarine and back.
For the research aim in the fields of the ship industry, the ocean engineering, the navigation and the navy, it is necessary to measure the ship water pressure (SWP) from the deep. In this paper we present a deep water optical fiber sensor to measure the SWP of moving ship. The advantages of this sensor are the automatic compensation for large static water pressure in the deep water, high sensitivity for SWP, and less sensitive to humidity. In our experiment in field, we successfully got the SWP-time curve by this optical fiber sensor underwater 40 - 50 M deep when the ship went through.
In general, when laser light is incident on biotissue, four interactions can happen: some light is reflected; some of the remaining transmitted light is scattered inside the tissue; some of the light is absorbed; finally, some may be transmitted all the way through the tissue. In the field of speckle metrology for biomedical science, speckle pattern forming by biotissues, such as human skin, sclera, etc., consists of the above first part as well as the second part. The multiple reflection and scattering (multi-effect) occurs, which may cause the polarization state of laser speckles to have some changes. Therefore, it is necessary to pay attention to the properties of polarized laser speckles in biomedical application. Unfortunately, relatively few experimental results are available in the literature since the `speckle' as a key word appeared in 1975. For basic work, we simply make several pieces of ground glasses coated with different thicknesses of white paint as simulated biotissues, i.e., diffusers having multi-effects. Based on the study of speckles polarization for multi-effects, we provided an experimental study of speckle-moire phenomenon previously. In this paper, we present a new concept of paired correlation speckle patterns, and explain the mechanism of moire-specklegram theoretically. Also, speckle-moire phenomenon are further investigated.
Based on the study of speckles polarization for multi-effect simulated biotissue, a new phenomenon called speckle-moire is created within a single diffraction halo of a laser specklegram. This is made by controlling the correlation between selected speckle pairs within a multiexposure specklegram via the polarization properties of laser speckles. This phenomenon can be used to measure the difference between two displacements or deformations processes, such as, in the field of speckle metrology for biomedical science.
In this paper we present the study on reflection speckles. We have investigated the polarization properties of reflection laser speckles and the relative correlation between speckle patterns of different polarization. If the diffuser is a pure glass it is found that reflection speckles are linear--polarized as that of the incident beam. This state of linear polarization of the speckle field degenerates into a state of average elliptical polarization as the diffuser surface is coated with a layer of flat white paint, as simulated biotissue; the degeneration increases as the thickness of the paint increases. The state of polarization is also a function of the scattering angle, and the maximum linear polarization always occurs at the direction of specular reflection of the average diffuser surface.
When laser light is incident on biotissue, the multiple reflection and scattering occur, which may cause the polarization state of laser speckles to have some changes. In this paper, we present an experiment study of the state of polarization of speckles generated from a multi- effect simulated biotissue, i.e., diffuse having multi-effects, via transmission, illuminated by a linearly polarized laser beam. It is found that in the case of non-multieffect diffuser the resulting speckles are linearly polarized as that of the illuminating beam. However, the state of linear polarization degenerates into an average elliptical polarization for the multi effect diffuser, and the degeneration increases as the multi-effect is stronger.
A brief review of the application of acoustic speckle as an information carrier for uses is
surveyed first. A two-dimension acoustic speckle pattern (ASP) as a whole is shown for the
first time by liquid surface relief method, and the basic principle of taking ASP due to a random
gridded-like "acoustic diffuser" is presented. Also, the use of ASP for measuring displacement
of underwater object is given, and the physical linking of ASP and the sun glitter
pattern on random sea waves is described as a possible new application of ASP.is described.
A twodimension acoustic speckle pattern (ASP) as a whole is shown for the first time by the liquid relief method. An ''acoustic diffuse? and basic use ofASP for measuring underwater object''s displacement are given. 1.
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