We report the initial results of a recent bilateral comparison of linewidth or critical dimension (CD) calibrations on photomask line features between two national metrology institutes (NMIs): the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) in the United States and the Physikalisch-Technische Bundesanstalt (PTB) in Germany. For the comparison, a chrome on glass (CoG) photomask was used which has a layout of line features down to 100 nm nominal size. Different measurement methods were used at both institutes. These included: critical dimension atomic force microscopy (CD-AFM), CD scanning electron microscopy (CD-SEM) and ultraviolet (UV) transmission optical microscopy. The measurands are CD at 50 % height of the features as well as sidewall angle and line width roughness (LWR) of the features. On the isolated opaque features, we found agreement of the CD measurements at the 3 nm to 5 nm level on most features – usually within the combined expanded uncertainties of the measurements.
Optical vision systems require both unidirectional and bidirectional measurements for the calibrations and the
verification of the tool performance to enable accurate measurements traceable to the SI unit Metre. However, for
bidirectional measurements up to now the national metrology institutes are unable to provide internationally recognized calibrations of suitable standards. Furthermore often users are not aware of the specific difficulties of these measurements. In this paper the current status and limitations of bidirectional optical measurements at the industrial level are summarised and compared to state-of-the-art optical linewidth measurements performed at PTB on measurement objects of semiconductor industry. It turns out, that for optical widths measurements at an uncertainty level below 1 μm
edge localisation schemes are required, which are based on tool and sample dependent threshold values, which usually
need to be determined by a rigorous simulation of the microscopic image. Furthermore the calibration samples and
structures must have a sufficient quality, e. g. high edge angle and low edge roughness and the structure materials and their material parameters have to be known. The experience obtained within the accreditation process of industrial labs for width calibrations shows that, in order to be able to achieve a desired measurement uncertainties of about 100 nm, the imaging system needs to have a monochromatic Koehler illumination, numerical aperture larger than 0.5, a magnification greater than 50x and the ability to control the deviation of the focus position to better than 100 nm.
In preparation for the international Nano1 linewidth comparison on photomasks between nine national metrology institutes,
the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) and the Physikalisch-Technische Bundesanstalt (PTB),
initiated a bilateral linewidth comparison in 2008, independent of and prior to the Nano1 comparison in order to test the
suitability of the mask standards and the general approach to be used for the Nano1 comparison. This paper reports on
the current status of the bilateral comparison. In particular the methods for linewidth metrology applied at NIST and
PTB and its major uncertainty contributions will be discussed based on actual measurements results for both of the mask
standards chosen for the bilateral comparison.
In preparation of the international Nano1 linewidth comparison on photomasks between 9 national metrology institutes,
NIST and PTB have started a bilateral linewidth comparison in 2008, independent of and prior to the Nano1 comparison
in order to test the suitability of the mask standards and the general approach to be used for the Nano1 comparison. This
contribution describes the rationale of both comparisons, the design of the mask comparison standards to be used and the
measurement methods applied for traceable photomask linewidth metrology at NIST and PTB.
Today, various types of high resolution dimensional metrology instrumentation are in use for a quantitative
characterisation of micro- and nanostructures. Although sophisticated ultra high resolution microscopic techniques like
SEM and AFM are available, optical methods like microscopy and scatterometry are still of interest and are important
because they are non-destructive, fast and have a good in-line capability.
At PTB different optical tools are used for high-resolution metrology. Our standard instrument for CD metrology is a
special UV transmission microscope. A new 193nm microscope is currently under development which will meet future
requirements at least for the 32nm node as specified in the ITRS roadmap. A special alternating grazing incidence dark
field microscope is used to measure the width of single features down to 100nm. For grating structures, we developed an
optical diffractometer for pitch calibrations with an uncertainty down to 10 pm. Recently we realised a DUV
scatterometer and ellipsometer capable to measure accurately CD, edge profile, layer thickness, and optical parameters.
A versatile EUV scatterometer can be used to characterise absorber structures e. g. on EUV photomasks. For accurate
measurements a thorough modelling on the basis of rigorous diffraction calculation is essential, which accounts for both
polarisation effects and the 3D geometry of the structures. We use the rigorous coupled wave analysis (RCWA) method
and the finite elements (FEM) method.
We present an overview of PTB's current and future activities in optical high-resolution metrology and how these
systems compare to ultra-high resolution microscopy like SEM or AFM.
We measured the pitch of a 144-nm pitch, two-dimensional grid in two different laboratories. Optical Diffraction gave
very high accuracy for mean pitch and Atomic Force Microscopy measured individual pitch values, gaining additional
information about local pitch variation. The measurements were made traceable to the international meter. Optical
diffraction gave mean value 143.928 ± 0.015 nm (95% confidence limit, per GUM). AFM gave mean value 143.895 ±
0.079 nm. Individual pitch values had standard deviation 0.55 nm and expanded uncertainty ± 1.1 nm. Mean values
measured by the two methods agreed within 0.033 nm. Because this was less than the uncertainty due to random
variation in the AFM results, it suggests that the AFM measuring and analysis procedures have successfully corrected all
systematic errors of practical significance in microscopy. We also discuss what precision may be expected from the
AFM method when it is applied to measure smaller pitches.
A new algorithm for SEM CD evaluation of trapezoidal line structures is presented. It is based on the physical modeling
of SEM image formation and allows the assignment of top and bottom structural edge positions to the SEM signal. The
SEM image profile is described by a set of piecewise continuous functions which is convoluted with the electron probe
intensity profile. The resulting function is fitted to the measured signal profile by a least squares algorithm. The fit
returns both top and bottom edge positions as well as the electron probe diameter. The algorithm is verified against three
different Monte Carlo simulation programs using different physical models of elastic and inelastic electron scattering and
secondary electron generation and transport. The effect of the physical modeling on the evaluated critical dimension is
discussed and the absolute CD deviation of the algorithm is determined for different sets of specimen and tool
parameters like edge slope angle, beam energy, and electron probe diameter.
Measurement and control of edge profiles and edge angles is increasingly important in advanced lithography. Especially
for critical dimension metrology a sophisticated multi-dimensional shape metrology is highly beneficial. Different types
of dimensional metrology instrumentation are in use today for edge profile and edge angle measurement. While
destructive cross section SEM measurements often serve as reference, AFM and optical scatterometry systems are
commonly used for day-to-day or in-line control. Due to the limitations of these metrology systems (AFM: slow,
scatterometry: only integral measurements of periodic structures), the evaluation and modelling of top down SEM
images is increasingly considered, too.
At the PTB both SEM and AFM as well as optical scatterometry are applied for edge angle and/or edge profile
metrology, supported by optical transmission microscopy. At the PTB we have realised a new DUV hybrid scatterometer
for measurements over the full range of 6025 format masks which combines essential elements of a reflectometer, an
ellipsometer, and a diffractometer. In addition to scatterometric measurements this set-up allows to measure the complete
Müller-matrix including transmission, polarisation and depolarisation. This new set-up will be presented in detail.
Finally we study the possibilities of evaluating high resolution top down SEM images to determine edge angles. The
potential of edge angle evaluation using these new analysis procedures will be discussed. We present an overview of the
PTB measurement capabilities with an emphasis on newly developed metrology methods and systems.
We are developing a new linewidth standard on the nanometre scale for use in the recently introduced new high-resolution optical microscopy techniques like deep ultraviolet microscopy (UVM) and confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM). Different types of high-resolution gratings, etched in amorphous silicon on quartz substrates, have been fabricated and evaluated using state-of-the-art UVM, CLSM, REM and AFM equipment. The produced linewidths range from about 80 nm to 2 μm. The contrast of the pattern in the UV region makes them suitable for transmission and reflection UV and laser scanning microscopy.
A new method of noise reduction based on shrinkage in the wavelet domain has been created for the application in projection radiography. The method is based on comparing two similar or quasi-identical images of the same object. Using an appropriate measure of similarity, these images are compared with each other in order to produce the weighting matrices. The weighting factors for the wavelet coefficients are chosen to be proportional to the elements of the weighting matrices. One image of the pair is then reconstructed from the weighted wavelet coefficients. The effect of this kind of de-noising is a suppression of those structures in the image which don’t correlate with the structures in the other image of the pair. Normally the suppressed structures are quantum or scatter noise, while the correlated structures which are not affected at all, are the real anatomical structures.
KEYWORDS: Sensors, Modulation transfer functions, Chromium, X-ray detectors, X-rays, Data modeling, Imaging devices, Signal to noise ratio, Quantum efficiency, Data conversion
The DQEs of four digital X-ray detector systems have been measured in accordance with the new international standard IEC 62220-1: two CR detector systems of the same type, a CsI-based indirect flat panel detector and a selenium-based direct flat panel detector. A mobile measurement set-up complying with IEC 62220-1 has been realized. All equipment used was of a specific design, tested and calibrated. A standardized radiation quality (RQA5) was applied, and the air
kerma at the detector entrance was varied between about 1 μGy and 20 μGy. The measurements of the two CR detector systems were performed at different sites using different X-ray generators/tubes and were in agreement within 0.02. The maximum DQE values were obtained for the lowest spatial frequency for which the DQE is required to be reported according to the IEC standard, i.e. at 0.5 mm-1: The maximum DQE value measured was 0.21 for the CR systems, 0.42 for the indirect flat panel detector, and 0.31 for the direct Selenium-based detector. It has been demonstrated that the
international standard IEC 62220-1 allows accurate and reliable measurements of the DQE to be conducted. It is now possible to objectively measure and compare DQE values of digital X-ray detector systems.
The contributors to image noise of two computed radiography (CR) detector systems-a state-of-the-art and a wellchosen laboratory CR image plate-were studied by two different methods. Method 1 analyzes the image noise content of a series of images obtained at a wide range of different X-ray exposure levels. It uses a model to fit the observed exposure dependence of the normalized noise power spectrum (NNPS): It distinguishes between an NNPS component that is independent of the exposure level and mainly due to correlated noise, and an NNPS component which is inversely proportional to the exposure level and consists mainly of quantum noise. Method 2 analyzes several images taken at the same exposure level and distinguishes between correlated noise, which remains unchanged in repeated exposures, and uncorrelated noise which is different in each image. The results of the two methods allowed the relevant noise contributions in CR images to be quantitatively determined. The novel laboratory image plate showed a significant reduction of correlated noise with an accompanying increase in the DQE. The results also served to estimate a possible improvement of DQE if an appropriate flat field correction is made for these CR systems.
A simple variant of the edge method to determine the presampled modulation transfer function (MTF) of digital imaging detectors has been developed that produces sufficiently accurate MTF values for frequencies up to the Nyquist frequency limit of the detector with only a small amount of effort for alignment and computing. An oversampled edge spread function (ESF) is generated from the image of a slanted edge by rearranging the pixel data of N consecutive lines that correspond to a lateral shift of the edge of one pixel. The original data are used for the computational analysis without further data preprocessing. Since the number of lines leading to an edge shift of one pixel is generally a fractional number rather than an integer, a systematic error may be introduced in the MTF obtained. Simulations and theoretical investigations show that for all frequencies up to the Nyquist limit the relative error ΔMTF/MTF is below 1/(2N) and can thus be kept below a given threshold by a suitable choice of N. The method is especially useful for applications where the MTF is needed for frequencies up to the Nyquist frequency limit, like the determination of the detective quantum efficiency (DQE).
There are many aspects that influence and deteriorate the detection of pathologies in X-ray images. Some of those are due to effects taking place in the stage of forming the X-ray intensity pattern in front of the x-ray detector. These can be described as motion blurring, depth blurring, anatomical background, scatter noise and structural noise. Structural noise results from an overlapping of fine irrelevant anatomical structures. A method for measuring the combined effect of structural noise and scatter noise was developed and will be presented in this paper. This method is based on the consideration that within a pair of projections created after rotation of the object with a small angle (which is within the typical uncertainty in positioning the patient) both images would show the same relevant structures whereas the projection of the fine overlapping structures will appear quite differently in the two images. To demonstrate the method two X-ray radiographs of a lung phantom were produced. The second radiograph was achieved after rotating the lung by an angle of about 3. Dyadic wavelet representations of both images were regarded. For each value of the wavelet scale parameter the corresponding pair of approximations was matched using the cross correlation matching technique. The homologous regions of approximations were extracted. The image containing only those structures that appear in both images simultaneously was then reconstructed from the wavelet coefficients corresponding to the homologous regions. The difference between one of the original images and the noise-reduced image contains the structural noise and the scatter noise.
There is a lot of effort to develop digital detectors for mammography, for example for the screening programs. For this development it would be very helpful to know, which structure sizes have to be reproduced. Besides that, the information content of images produced by digital systems may be influenced by aliasing artifacts, if there are frequency components in the incoming signal higher than the Nyquist- frequency of the detector. Therefore the spatially modulated pattern of the X-ray intensity in a mammogram has to be known, but so far only little information is available. The method to measure and analyze the X-ray intensity pattern of a radiograph of the thorax in the detector plane which was presented at 'Medical Imaging' conference last year has been further developed in a way, that it meets the requirements for determining the intensity pattern in mammography.
KEYWORDS: Lamps, Cameras, Glasses, Modulation transfer functions, Tungsten, Monte Carlo methods, Optical testing, Camera shutters, Photography, Digital photography
An illuminated table intended for illuminating transmission test charts used for the optical testing of different image capture devices has been developed. It provides a diffusely luminous table face, 300 mm in diameter, in a compact set- up. The spectral distribution of the emitted light is similar to Planck radiation of about 3050 K as required, for example, for testing, digital photographic cameras. The luminance level achievable is about 15000 cd/m2, the standard deviation of which is 1.8 percent within a circle of 300 mm in diameter. The illuminated table consists of an integrating hemisphere, with the large opening covered by an opal glass serving as the illuminated table face. Inside, a set of seven tungsten lamps is posited at locations such that the light output at the table face is as uniform as possible. Residual non-uniformities caused, for example, by slightly differing luminous intensities of the lamps are adjusted by controlling the currents of the seven lamps individually by means of a PC-controlled automatically running optimization process. This closed control loop uses a calibrated digital camera to capture the current spatial light distribution at the table face. The image is analyzed by an algorithm integrated in to the control loop.
The X-ray intensity pattern in a radiograph of the thorax was measured. The measurements were carried out in the detector plane with high spatial resolution. A special phantom prepared from the lung of a dead body in which all fine details were existing was used for these measurements. This phantom was exposed to X-rays applying the standard examination conditions for thoracic imaging according to the 'European Guidelines on Quality Criteria for Diagnostic Radiographic Images,' and the image was stored on industrial X-ray film normally used for non-destructive testing. These images were digitized with a high-resolution drum film scanner. It is shown that the image degradation by the industrial X-ray film and the scanner was very small in the range of the estimated spectrum of the intensity pattern and that no problems with aliasing due to the scanning process would arise. The characteristic curves of the film and the scanner were evaluated. The X-ray intensity pattern of the thorax was calculated on the basis of these curves. Different methods to evaluate the information content of the image in the frequency domain are presented. The results obtained by these methods have been used to propose requirements for digital detector systems.
Light sensitometers with electroluminescent foils as light sources are widely used for controlling film processing in medical x-ray imaging. This type of sensitometers emits trains of light pulses which may cause intermittency effects and reciprocity law failures. The effects were measured for various x-ray films with an especially designed novel light sensitometer. The results show, that there are significant effects for some films, demanding consequences for the construction of light sensitometers equipped with electroluminescent foils.
Electro-optic filters with a transmittance variable in time are used for eye protection in electric welding applications. These filters change their luminous transmittance automatically from an initial maximum value to a minimum value when the welding arc is ignited. In the light state, the work-piece and thus the location where the electrode is to be set can be observed. After the ignition of the arc, within a certain switching time, the filter changes to its dark state in order to make the welding process visible.
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