Low-coherence interferometry is combined with confocal scanning to provide remote refractive index and thickness measurements of transparent materials. The influence of lens aberrations in the confocal measurement is assessed through investigation of the axial point-spread functions (APSFs) generated using optical configurations comprised of paired aspherics and paired achromats. Off-axis parabolic mirrors are suggested as an alternative to lenses and are shown to exhibit much more symmetric APSFs provided the system numerical aperture is not too high. Refractive index and thickness measurements are made with each configuration with most mirror pairings offering better than twice the repeatability and accuracy of either lens pairing.
When used as samples cells for optical absorbance measurements, integrating spheres offer increased pathlengths compared to single pass cells combined with tolerance to misalignment. This makes them attractive during alignment of optical instruments and in challenging environments subject to vibration. However, integrating spheres can suffer problems when used in sensitive and / or accurate absorbance measurement. We present our work to date to address these issues in high resolution laser spectroscopy.
Firstly, optical interference effects include both random laser speckle and structured interference fringes created by optical feedback to the laser. Secondly, the sphere’s optical pathlength is a combination of multiple paths that take an exponential pathlength distribution. At low values of absorbance, the measured signal is linear with concentration, but at higher absorbances signals follow a nonlinear but predictable function of absorbance. Thirdly, our most recent work concerns calibration of the optical pathlength, which is a sensitive function of its internal reflectivity. In-situ calibration is needed if the sphere is to be used in dirty environments or with condensing samples. Measurements from multiple independent sources and / or detectors are combined to provide compensation from fouling of the sphere walls and windows.
Results are presented for an integrating sphere used in the measurement of methane. The emission from a tunable DFB laser at 1651nm was tuned across the gas absorption line to measure its concentration. Reduced sphere reflectivity was simulated by applying small areas of black tape on the inner surface. Finally, we give an example of one application where our results are being put into practice: use of an integrating sphere with a tunable laser at 3.3μm to measure atmospheric methane, installed on a two seater light aircraft.
Measurement of the refractive index and thickness of transparent plates is demonstrated using combined low-coherence interferometry and confocal scanning. The low-coherence measurement provides a quantity related to the group index and the confocal scan provides a parameter related to the phase index. Calculation of both the phase and group indices also requires a measurement of the confocal parameter at multiple wavelengths. This is achieved using a broadband source and a line-scan spectrometer to interrogate different regions of the spectrum. Measurements are made on a range of transparent optical materials with the mean percentage errors of each measurand being 0.08%, 0.06%, and 0.12% for np, ng, and thickness t respectively.
Laser spectroscopy provides the basis of instrumentation developed for the diagnosis of infectious disease, via quantification of organic biomarkers that are produced by associated bacteria. The technology is centred on a multichannel pulsed quantum cascade laser system that allows multiple lasers with different wavelengths to be used simultaneously, each selected to monitor a different diagnostic biomarker. The instrument also utilizes a hollow silica waveguide (HSW) gas cell which has a very high ratio of interaction pathlength to internal volume. This allows sensitive detection of low volume gas species from small volume biological samples. The spectroscopic performance of a range of HSW gas cells with different lengths and bore diameters has been assessed using methane as a test gas and a best-case limit of detection of 0.26 ppm was determined. The response time of this cell was measured as a 1,000 sccm flow of methane passed through it and was found to be 0.75 s. These results are compared with those obtained using a multi-pass Herriot cell. A prototype instrument has been built and approved for clinical trials for detection of lung infection in acute-care patients via analysis of ventilator breath. Demonstration of the instrument for headspace gas analysis is made by monitoring the methane emission from bovine faeces. The manufacture of a hospital-ready device for monitoring biomarkers of infection in the exhaled breath of intensive care ventilator patients is also presented.
Detection of methane at 3.3μm using a DFB Interband Cascade Laser and gold coated integrating sphere is performed. A 10cm diameter sphere with effective path length of 54.5cm was adapted for use as a gas cell. A comparison between this system and one using a 25cm path length single-pass gas cell is made using direct TDLS and methane concentrations between 0 and 1000 ppm. Initial investigations suggest a limit of detection of 1.0ppm for the integrating sphere and 2.2ppm for the single pass gas cell. The system has potential applications in challenging or industrial environments subject to high levels of vibration.
We introduce a novel approach to continuous in-situ pathlength calibration of an integrating sphere based gas cell. Using two light sources and two detectors, a four beam ratiometric scheme is constructed, which compensates for component variation and sample chamber contamination. By applying the scheme to both on and off gas line measurements, changes in pathlength due to cell wall contamination can be identified and corrected. In this way the gas absorption coefficient can be determined continuously without needing to recalibrate the sphere. Results are presented for detection of methane at 1651nm. This method has the potential for extension to other gases such as CO2, CO, H2S, NOx.
An optical fibre refractometer using a ball lens as a sensor head has been developed and characterised. Light from a superluminescent diode is directed to an optical fibre sensor head and the intensity of the returned beam gives a measure of the refractive index of the medium at the ball lens fibre tip. A second beam is used to reference the intensity measurements. The system is capable of detecting changes in refractive index with a resolution of 0.003 RIU. The ball lenses have been coated with an 80nm thick layer of palladium and the potential use of this system as a micromirror hydrogen sensor is demonstrated. This technique offers a simple sensor head arrangement, with a large signal sampling area compared with that of a bare fibre.
Quantitative surface strain measurement is demonstrated on dynamic test objects using a shearography instrument
comprising four measurement channels. The measurement channels are formed using four observation directions and a
single illumination direction. Images from the four measurement channels are transported to a shearing interferometer
using fibre-optic imaging bundles after which they are spatially multiplexed onto the quadrants of a single CCD camera.
This facilitates the simultaneous acquisition of data from the four measurement channels. A pulsed laser source was
used to effectively freeze the motion of the dynamic surface at two positions in its cycle. The phase variation caused by
surface deformation in the time between the two recordings was calculated using the spatial carrier technique. The
orthogonal displacement gradient components which characterize the surface strain of the object were calculated from
the unwrapped phase maps from each measurement channel using a matrix transformation. Two test objects were
investigated. The first was a thermally loaded PTFE plate rotating at 610 rpm. Images were recorded a frequency of
10 Hz, corresponding to the repetition rate of the laser. The second object was a speaker cone that was set to vibrate at
frequencies in the range of 1.9-4.5 kHz. Phase measurements were made from images recorded 1.6 μs apart using dual
pulsed illumination in combination with a dual-framing CCD camera.
Quantitative, full-field surface strain measurement is achievable using shearography instrumentation that employs at
least three measurement channels. The system presented here possesses four measurement channels consisting of four
views of the object. Images from the four views are ported to the shearing interferometer using fibre-optic imaging
bundles. The use of fibre-optic imaging bundles simplifies the experimental arrangement considerably, allowing full-field
surface strain measurements to be made using just one CCD camera and one shearing interferometer. Simultaneous
capture of data from the four measurement channels using a pulsed laser source allows the measurement of surface strain
on dynamic objects. In this paper the use of the instrument to make measurements of the surface strain profile of a PTFE
plate rotating at 600 rpm is described. The use of the spatial carrier technique allows the deformation induced phase
variation to be calculated across the field of view from just two images recorded from the object on subsequent rotations.
Quantitative surface strain measurement using shearography requires the calculation of six components of displacement
gradient. This is done using shearography instrumentation with at least three measurement channels combined with two
orthogonal shear directions. These channels take the form of either multiple illumination or observation directions. The
system presented here is based on the illumination of the object of interest using a pulsed Nd:YAG laser and the
observation of the object from four separate positions arranged in a square around the illuminating beam. Images from
the four observation positions are transported to a shearing interferometer using coherent fibre-optic imaging bundles,
where they are spatially multiplexed onto the sensor of a single CCD camera. Displacement gradient measurements
from a static test object are presented and compared to the results of a computational model. Phase analysis is carried
out using two approaches, temporal phase stepping and the carrier fringe technique, with the aim of extending the
application of the instrument to the monitoring of dynamic loading events.
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