The Variable Resolution X-ray (VRX) technique has been successfully used in a Cone-Beam CT (CBCT) system
to increase the spatial resolution of CT images in the transverse plane. This was achieved by tilting the Flat
Panel Detector (FPD) to smaller vrxy angles in a VRX Cone Beam CT (VRX-CBCT) system. In this paper, the
effect on the axial spatial resolution of CT images created by the VRX-CBCT system is examined at different
vrxx angles, where vrxx is the tilting angle of the FPD about its x-axis. An amorphous silicon FPD with a
CsI scintillator is coupled with a micro-focus x-ray tube to form a CBCT. The FPD is installed on a rotating
frame that allows rotation of up to 90° about x and y axes of the FPD. There is no rotation about the z-axis
(i.e. normal to the imaging surface). Tilting the FPD about its x-axis (i.e. decreasing the vrxx angle) reduces
both the width of the line-spread function and the sampling distance by a factor of sin vrxx, thereby increasing
the theoretical detector pre-sampling spatial resolution proportionately. This results in thinner CT slices that
in turn help increase the axial spatial resolution of the CT images. An in-house phantom is used to measure the
MTF of the reconstructed CT images at different vrxx angles.
Variable Resolution X-ray (VRX) CT scanners allow imaging of different sized anatomy at the same level of
detail using the same device. This is achieved by tilting the x-ray detectors so that the projected size of the
detecting elements is varied to produce reconstructions of smaller fields of view with higher spatial resolution.
As with regular CT scanners, the images obtained with VRX scanners are affected by different kinds of artifacts
of various origins. This work studies some of these artifacts and the impact that the VRX effect has on them.
For this, computational models of single-arm single-slice VRX scanners are used to produce images with artifacts
commonly found in routine use. These images and artifacts are produced using our VRX CT scanner simulator,
which allows us to isolate the system parameters that have a greater effect on the artifacts. A study of the
behavior of the artifacts at varying VRX opening angles is presented for scanners implemented using two different
detectors. The results show that, although varying the VRX angle will have an effect on the severity of each
of the artifacts studied, for some of these artifacts the effect of other factors (such as the distribution of the
detector cells and the position of the phantom in the reconstruction grid) is overwhelmingly more significant.
This is shown to be the case for streak artifacts produced by thin metallic objects. For some artifacts related
to beam hardening, their severity was found to decrease along with the VRX angle. These observations allow
us to infer that in regular use the effect of the VRX angle artifacts similar to the ones studied here will not be
noticeable as it will be overshadowed by parameters that cannot be easily controlled outside of a computational
model.
A new Cone-Beam CT (CBCT) system is introduced that uses the concept of Variable Resolution X-ray (VRX)
detection, which has previously been demonstrated to significantly increase spatial resolution for small objects.
An amorphous silicon Flat Panel Detector (FPD) with a CsI scintillator (PaxScan 2020, Varian, Salt Lake City,
UT) is coupled with a micro-focus x-ray tube (35 - 80 kVp, 10 - 250 μA) to form a CBCT. The FPD is installed
on a rotating arm that can be adjusted to any angle θ, called the VRX angle, between 90° and 0° with respect to
the x-ray direction. A VRX angle of 90° for the detector corresponds to a conventional CBCT whereas a VRX
angle of 30° means that the detector is tilted 90° - 30° = 60° from its perpendicular position. Tilting the FPD in
this manner reduces both the line-spread function width and the sampling distance by a factor of sin(&thgr;), thereby
increasing detector spatial resolution proportionately. An in-house phantom is used to measure the MTF of the
reconstructed CT images using different VRX angles. An increase by a factor of 1.67 ± 0.007 is observed in the
MTF cutoff frequency at 30° compared to 90° in images acquired at 75 kVp. Expected theoretical value for this
case is 2.0. The new Cone-Beam Variable Resolution X-ray (CB-VRX) CT system is expected to significantly
improve the images acquired from small objects - such as small animals - while exploiting the opportunities
offered by a conventional CBCT.
Variable Resolution X-ray (VRX) CT scanners allow imaging of different sized anatomy at the same level of
detail using the same device. This is achieved by tilting the x-ray detectors so that the projected size of the
detecting elements is varied producing reconstructions of smaller fields of view with higher spatial resolution.1
The detector can be divided in two or more separate segments, called arms, which can be placed at different
angles, allowing some flexibility for the scanner design. In particular, several arms can be set at different angles
creating a target region of considerably higher resolution that can be used to track the evolution of a previously
diagnosed condition, while keeping the patient completely inside the field of view (FOV).2 This work presents
newly-developed computer models of single-slice VRX scanners that allow us to study and compare different
configurations (that is, various types of detectors arranged in any number of arms arranged in different geometries)
in terms of spatial and contrast resolution. In particular, we are interested in comparing the performance
of various geometric configurations that would otherwise be considered equivalent (using the same equipment,
imaging FOVs of the same sizes, and having a similar overall scanner size). For this, a VRX simulator was
developed, along with mathematical phantoms for spatial resolution and contrast analysis. These tools were
used to compare scanner configurations that can be reproduced with materials presently available in our lab.
Conventional X-ray radiographic systems rely on transmitted photons for the production of images. Backscatter imaging makes use of the more abundant scattered photons for image formation. Specifically, incoherently (Compton) scattered X-ray photons are detected and used for image formation in this modality of medical imaging. However, additional information is obtained when the transmitted X-ray photons are also detected and used. Transmission radiography produces a two-dimensional image of a three dimensional system, therefore image information from a shallower object is often contaminated by image information from underlying objects. Backscattered x-ray imaging largely overcomes this deficiency by imaging depth selectively, which reduces corruption of shallow imaging information by information from deeper objects lying under it. Backscattered x-ray imaging may be particularly useful for examining anatomical structures at shallow depths beneath the skin. Some typical applications for such imaging might be breast imaging, middle ear imaging, imaging of skin melanomas, etc. Previous investigations, by way of theoretical calculations and computational simulations into the feasibility of this kind of imaging have uncovered high-contrast and SNR parameters. Simulations indicate that this method can be used for imaging relatively high-density objects at depths of up to approximately five centimeters below the surface. This paper presents both theoretical and experimental SNR results on this new medical imaging modality.
The basic VRX technique boosts spatial resolution of a CT scanner in the scan plane by two or more orders of magnitude by reducing the angle of incidence of the x-ray beam with respect to the detector surface. A four-arm Variable-Resolution X-ray (VRX) detector has been developed for CT scanning. The detector allows for "target imaging" in which an area of interest is scanned at higher resolution than the remainder of the subject, yielding even higher resolution for the focal area than that obtained from the basic VRX technique. The new VRX-CT detector comprises four quasi-identical arms each containing six 24-cell modules (576 cells total). The modules are made of individual custom CdWO4 scintillators optically-coupled to custom photodiode arrays. The maximum scan field is 40 cm for a magnification of 1.4. A significant advantage of the four-arm geometry is that it can transform quickly to the two-arm, or even the single-arm geometry, for comparison studies. These simpler geometries have already been shown experimentally to yield in-plane CT detector resolution exceeding 60 cy/mm (<8μ) for small fields of view. Geometrical size and resolution limits of the target VRX field are calculated. Two-arm VRX-CT data are used to simulate and establish the feasibility of VRX CT target imaging. A prototype target VRX-CT scanner has been built and is undergoing initial testing.
The Variable Resolution X-ray (VRX) CT system, developed at the UTHSC, Memphis, has the potential for use in animal imaging. Animal models of tumor progression and pharmacological impact are becoming increasingly important in understanding the molecular and mechanistic basis of tumor development. In general, CT-imaging offers several advantages in animal research: a fast throughput of seconds to minutes reducing the physiological stress animals are exposed to, and it is an inexpensive modality affordable to many animal laboratories. We are developing the VRX CT scanner as a non-invasive imaging modality to measure tumor volume, progression, and metastasis. From the axial images taken by the VRX CT-scanner, tumor area was measured and the tumor volume was calculated. Animals were also imaged using an optical liquid nitrogen-cooled CCD camera to detect tumor fluorescence. A simple image fusion with a planner x-ray image was used to ascertain the position of the tumors, animals were then sacrificed the tumors excised, and the tumor volume calculated by physical measurements. Furthermore, using a specially designed phantom with three spheres of different volumes, we demonstrated that our system allowed us to estimate the volume with up to 10% accuracy; we expect this to increase dramatically in the next few months.
A procedure is developed that enables comprehensive and automatic image quality evaluation of computed tomography (CT) systems. This procedure includes custom-designed software and an image quality phantom composed of subsections with regional test objects. The phantom is designed so that the maximum amount of information concerning image quality and system performance can be obtained in a single scan. The software automatically analyzes phantom images and generates measurements of image quality that are both quantitative and objective. The image quality parameters that will be attained from a single scan of the phantom include: spatial resolution, contrast, contrast signal-to-noise ratio, linearity, uniformity, slice thickness, temporal resolution, and dose. This evaluation procedure provides a simple, automated method of quality control. The phantom and procedure can also be used as a research tool for studying modifications of CT system components.
In this study, we present results from a mathematical model of the phantom. We discuss the design and validation of the phantom and accompanying software.
KEYWORDS: Modulation transfer functions, Monte Carlo methods, Sensors, Imaging systems, Prototyping, Quantum efficiency, Spatial resolution, Xenon, Signal to noise ratio, Spatial frequencies
Megavoltage x-ray imaging suffers from relatively poor contrast and spatial resolution compared to diagnostic kilovoltage x-ray imaging due to the dominant Compton scattering in the former. Recently available amorphous silicon/selenium based flat-panel imagers overcome many of the limitations of poor contrast and spatial resolution that affect conventional video based electronic portal imaging devices (EPIDs). An alternative technology is presented here: kinestatic charge detection (KCD). The KCD uses a slot photon beam, high-pressure gas (xenon, 100 atm) and a multi-ion rectangular chamber in scanning mode. An electric field is used to regulate the cation drift velocity. By matching the scanning speed with that of the cation drift, the cations remain static in the object frame of reference, allowing temporal integration of the signal. KCD imaging is characterized by reduced scatter and a high signal-to-noise ratio. Measurements and Monte Carlo simulations of modulation transfer function (MTF), noise power spectrum (NPS) and the detective quantum efficiency (DQE) of a prototype small field of view KCD detector (384 channels, 0.5 mm spacing) were carried out. Measurements yield DQE[0]=0.19 and DQE[0.5cy/mm]=0.01. KCD imaging is compared to film and commercial EPID systems using phantoms, with the KCD requiring an extremely low dose (0.1 cGy) per image. A proposed cylindrical chamber design with a higher ion-collection depth is expected to further improve image quality (DQE[0]>0.25).
A variable resolution x-ray (VRX) detector provides a great increase in the spatial resolution of a CT scanner. An important factor that limits the spatial resolution of the detector is x-ray cross-talk. A theoretical study of the x-ray cross-talk is presented in this paper. In the study, two types of the x-ray cross-talk were considered: inter-cell and inter-arm cross-talk. Both types of the x-ray cross-talk were simulated, using the Monte Carlo method, as functions of the detector field of view (FOV). The simulation was repeated for lead and tungsten separators between detector cells. The inter-cell x-ray cross-talk was maximum at the 34-36 cm FOV, but it was low at small and the maximum FOVs. The inter-arm x-ray cross-talk was high at small and medium FOVs, but it was greatly reduced when variable width collimators were placed on the front surfaces of the detector. The inter-cell, but not inter-arm, x-ray cross-talk was lower for tungsten than for lead separators. From the results, x-ray cross-talk in a VRX detector can be minimized by imaging all objects between 24 cm and 40 cm in diameter with the 40 cm FOV, using tungsten separators, and placing variable width collimators in front of the detector.
A technique called Variable-Resolution X-ray (VRX) detection greatly increases the spatial resolution in computed tomography (CT) and digital radiography (DR) as the field size decreases. The technique is based on a principle called `projective compression' that allows both the resolution element and the sampling distance of a CT detector to scale with the subject or field size. For very large (40 - 50 cm) field sizes, resolution exceeding 2 cy/mm is possible and for very small fields, microscopy is attainable with resolution exceeding 100 cy/mm. This paper compares the benefits obtainable with two different VRX detector geometries: the single-arm geometry and the dual-arm geometry. The analysis is based on Monte Carlo simulations and direct calculations. The results of this study indicate that the dual-arm system appears to have more advantages than the single-arm technique.
A 'variable resolution x-ray detector' (VRX) capable of resolving beyond 100 cycles/main a single dimension has been proposed by DiBianca, et al. The use of detectors of this design for computed-tomography (CT) imaging requires novel preprocessing of data to correct for the detector's non- uniform imaging characteristics over its range of view. This paper describes algorithms developed specifically to adjust VRX data for varying magnification, source-to-detector range and beam obliquity and to sharpen reconstructions by deconvolving the ray impulse function. The preprocessing also incorporates nonlinear interpolation of VRX raw data into canonical CT sinogram formats.
KEYWORDS: Sensors, Modulation transfer functions, Solid state electronics, Signal to noise ratio, X-ray detectors, X-rays, Scintillators, Signal detection, Data acquisition, X-ray computed tomography
A technique called Variable-Resolution X-ray (VRX) detection that greatly increases the spatial resolution in computed tomography (CT) and digital radiography (DR) is presented. The technique is based on a principle called 'projective compression' that allows the resolution element of a CT detector to scale with the subject or field size. For very large (40 - 50 cm) field sizes, resolution exceeding 2 cy/mm is possible and for very small fields, microscopy is attainable with resolution exceeding 100 cy/mm. Preliminary results from a 576-channel solid-state detector are presented. The detector has a dual-arm geometry and is comprised of CdWO4 scintillator crystals arranged in 24 modules of 24 channels/module. The scintillators are 0.85 mm wide and placed on 1 mm centers. Measurements of signal level, MTF and SNR, all versus detector angle, are presented.
KEYWORDS: Calibration, Signal to noise ratio, Imaging systems, Spatial resolution, Sensors, Data acquisition, Modulation transfer functions, X-rays, Digital imaging, Prototyping
In megavoltage imaging, current commercial electronic portal imaging devices (EPIDs), despite having the advantage of immediate digital imaging over film, suffer from poor image contrast and spatial resolution. The feasibility of using a kinestatic charge detector (KCD) as an EPID to provide superior image contrast and spatial resolution for portal imaging has already been demonstrated in a previous paper. The KCD system had the additional advantage of requiring an extremely low dose per acquired image, allowing for superior imaging to be reconstructed form a single linac pulse per image pixel. The KCD based images utilized a dose of two orders of magnitude less that for EPIDs and film. Compared with the current commercial EPIDs and film, the prototype KCD system exhibited promising image qualities, despite being handicapped by the use of a relatively simple image calibration technique, and the performance limits of medical linacs on the maximum linac pulse frequency and energy flux per pulse delivered. This image calibration technique fixed relative image pixel values based on a linear interpolation of extrema provided by an air-water calibration, and accounted only for channel-to-channel variations. The counterpart of this for area detectors is the standard flat fielding method. A comprehensive calibration protocol has been developed. The new technique additionally corrects for geometric distortions due to variations in the scan velocity, and timing artifacts caused by mis-synchronization between the linear accelerator and the data acquisition system (DAS). The role of variations in energy flux (2 - 3%) on imaging is demonstrated to be not significant for the images considered. The methodology is presented, and the results are discussed for simulated images. It also allows for significant improvements in the signal-to- noise ratio (SNR) by increasing the dose using multiple images without having to increase the linac pulse frequency or energy flux per pulse. The application of this protocol to a KCD system under construction is expected shortly.
A new technique called Variable-Resolution X-ray (VRX) detection that dramatically increases the spatial resolution in computed tomography (CT) and digital radiography (DR) is presented. The technique is based on a principle called 'projective compression' that allows the resolution element of a CT detector to scale with the subject or field size. For very large (40 - 50 cm) field sizes, resolution exceeding 2 cy/mm is possible and for very small fields, microscopy is attainable with resolution exceeding 100 cy/mm. Several effects that could limit the performance of VRX detectors are considered. Experimental measurements on a 16-channel, CdWO4 scintillator + photodiode test array yield a limiting MTF of 64 cy/mm (8(mu) ) in the highest-resolution configuration reported. Preliminary CT images have been made of small anatomical specimens and small animals using a storage phosphor screen in the VRX mode. Measured detector resolution of the CT projection data exceeds 20 cy/mm (less than 25 (mu) ); however, the final, reconstructed CT images produced thus far exhibit 10 cy/mm (50 (mu) ) resolution because of non-flatness of the storage phosphor plates, focal spot effects and the use of a rudimentary CT reconstruction algorithm. A 576-channel solid-state detector is being fabricated that is expected to achieve CT image resolution in excess of that of the 26-channel test array.
The Kinestatic Charge Detector (KCD) digital radiography system has proven itself experimentally to be comparable with or superior to other x-ray imaging systems in the production of quality images at the same dose. The prototype large-field detector design has obtained images that have relatively high spatial and contrast resolution with low scatter and low quantum noise compared with current commercially available clinical x-ray systems. The NIH has approved a grant to develop and construct an advanced clinical KCD digital radiography system. The goals of this project are to design the gantry and clinically evaluate the new system. This system will allow for improved diagnosis, reduced patient dose, and provide other features unique to a digital radiography system.
An adaptive median filter algorithm to remove impulse noise in x-ray images and speckle in ultrasound images is presented. The ordinary median filter tends to distort or lose fine details in an image. Also, a significant amount of the original information in the image is altered. The proposed algorithm considers the local variability over the entire image to ensure that the fine details are preserved and more than 90 percent of the original information is retained. The robustness of the algorithm is demonstrated by applying it to images from different modalities like diagnostic x-ray, CT, portal imaging and ultrasound.
One of the goals of medical imaging scientists and bioengineers remains the development of digital electronic technologies that can replace film-based methods of acquiring x-ray images. With the achievement of this goal, all diagnostic imaging technologies would be based on digital techniques with all the attending benefits. Based on the performance of numerous research prototype small-field and one large-field Kinestatic Charge Detector (KCD) system for digital radiography, a large-field clinical KCD scanner is currently being designed and built for technical evaluation and for clinical evaluation of 200 volunteer patients (including clinical comparisons with film, storage phosphor, and other available clinical systems). The state of development of this clinical KCD system, including detector, data-acquisition system and scanning gantry design, is reviewed in this paper.
We investigate the use of the kinestatic charge detector (KCD) together with the multi-level scheme algebraic reconstruction technique (MLS-ART) for computer tomography (CT) reconstruction, to be used in position verification in radiotherapy. The KCD offers very good contrast resolution, which is especially useful given the low number of projections we are aiming at. We present the images reconstructed using a head phantom (Rando-phantom) using a total of 95 projections, and a standard low contrast CT phantom using 63 projections. The reconstruction was carried out using MLS-ART technique, in this technique satisfactory images are generally obtained after one or two iteration, which in effect makes ART a noniterative algorithm. We also present the CT images obtained using the back projection technique for comparison purposes.
Robert Endorf, Vincent Schmithorst, Sunil Kulatunga, David Spelic, Stephen Thomas, Frank DiBianca, Carlos Rodriguez, Herbert Zeman, Zeping Zhu, George Giakos
The Kinestatic Charge Detector (KCD) is an electronic digital strip beam x-ray detector which has been shown to possess a high detective quantum efficiency, good spatial resolution, and good scatter rejection. We have investigated its use as a dual-energy x-ray detector detector, which involves the acquisition of two images with different mean x-ray energies that can be reconstructed using a suitable algorithm to form images of two basis materials such as bone and soft tissue. Dual-energy imaging with a single exposure may be performed with a KCD by segmenting its x-ray collection region into front and back regions. The lower x-ray photons will then be preferentially absorbed in the front region. Computer simulations were performed to evaluate a segmented KCD's ability to reconstruct various combinations of Plexiglas and aluminum. Actual experimental data were also taken for various Plexiglas and aluminum combinations with a non-imaging research KCD. The suitability of using analytic calibration functions as decomposition algorithms for aluminum and Plexiglas basis material images was investigated. Fits were performed for the computer simulations using the high-energy and low-energy data, with and without the addition of noise. Similar fitting techniques were used with the experimental KCD data. A true rms accuracy of 150 micrometer for aluminum and 500 micrometer for Plexiglas was obtainable from fits for the computer simulated data, even with the addition of noise. The experimental data taken with the non-imaging KCD yielded rms errors of approximately 250 micrometer for aluminum and 1000 micrometer for Plexiglas, comparable to simulated noisy data. We conclude that suitable decomposition algorithms exist for a segmented dual-energy KCD to be able to reconstruct aluminum and Plexiglas material thicknesses to an accuracy sufficient for clinical diagnosis in chest radiography.
The potential of a research prototype Kinestatic Charge Detector and data acquisition system for megavoltage portal imaging is discussed. Monte Carlo modeling of, and experimental results for, the line-spread function, modulation transfer function, energy efficiency and quantum detection efficiency are given and compared with those of portal film detectors. The first phantom images from the small-field system are compared with images of the same phantoms taken with commercial portal film systems. Future directions are discussed.
The x-ray capture, conversion into charge carriers, ion transport mechanisms and image formation mechanisms within a high-gas pressure digital radiographic system, operating up to 60 atm., are presented and analyzed. In detail, the physics of the high-pressure KCD imaging detectors is exposed, analyzed and related to the detector and image quality parameters. Specifically, this study indicates that ion diffusion cannot account for all the experimental observations. It advances the hypothesis that, at sufficiently high pressures, formation of molecular clusters with narrowed mobility distribution take place, through energy exchange mechanism, with local potential forces such that they compensate the space charge distortion of the applied field strength.
Robert Endorf, Vincent Schmithorst, Sunil Kulatunga, David Spelic, Stephen Thomas, Frank DiBianca, Carlos Rodriguez, Herbert Zeman, Zeping Zhu, George Giakos
A small research non imaging kinestatic charge detector (KCD), with segmented signal- collection fingers, has been used to investigate the dual-energy capability of a KCD. The front segments of the signal-collectors produce a digital low-energy x-ray image and the back segments produce a digital high-energy x-ray image. A gap between the front and back signal- collectors may be used as a filter to increase the separation between the mean energies absorbed in the front and back segments. The dual-energy imaging capability of the large-field (2016-channel) KCD, without segmented signal-collection fingers, has also been evaluated using the two-exposure technique of taking two sequential x-ray exposures at different x-ray kilovoltages of a fixed phantom. Dual-energy calibrations, based on various decomposition algorithms, were performed for both the segmented non imaging KCD and the large-field imaging KCD. The calibration parameters were calculated from measurements taken with various thicknesses of aluminum and Plexiglas. The rms errors in aluminum and Plexiglas thicknesses for the various dual-energy decomposition algorithms are compared for each KCD.
Frank DiBianca, Carlos Rodriguez, Sreenivas Devidas, Donald Emerson, M. Waleed Gaber, George Giakos, Robert Gold, Lawrence Jordan, Robert Kaufman, Shashidhar Kollipara, Joseph Laughter, Azad Mahmud, Senthilkumar Nagarajan, Qian Peng, Pamela Price, Jeno Sebes, Herbert Zeman, Zeping Zhu
The initial clinical performance of a research prototype digital radiographic system based on a large-field (2016-channel) kinestatic charge detector and data acquisition system is discussed. The first clinical images from the large-field system are compared with images of the same patients taken with commercial systems. Future directions are discussed.
The kinestatic charge detector (KCD) built and researched at the University of Tennessee, Memphis, is now being studied as a possible dual-energy x-ray imager. The present study aims at quantifying the change in the arrival time spectrum (ATS) as a function of the detector's depth, i.e., in the x-ray direction. We measured the change in the full width at half maximum (FWHM) along the x-ray direction in the chamber using a segmented signal- collector board. The FWHM of the ionic signal exhibit a dependence on the x-ray beam intensity, and electric field strength. Furthermore, the average arrival time is almost constant along the detector depth.
A kinestatic charge detector (KCD) with fourteen segmented signal collectors was built to evaluate the imaging performance of the single-scan dual energy x-ray KCD system. Those front segments of the KCD collectors will produce a low energy signal and those rear segments will produce a high energy signal. The middle segments between the front and rear work as an inactive filter to increase the separation of mean energies absorbed in the front and rear segments. In this study, the segmented KCD output signals were measured and compared with the Monte Carlo simulated result. An optimal KCD collector configuration is gotten by mapping the low energy and high energy signal amplitude to the predetermined thickness of the lucite-aluminum wedge-phantom (0-228.6 mm lucite and 0-25.4 mm aluminum), and then performing error analysis between the calculated thickness and known thickness.
A prototype kinestatic charge detector (KCD) has been built at the University of Tennessee, Memphis, with a resolution of 0.2 by 0.2 mm and a field of view of 40 by 40 cm. This KCD prototype was designed specifically for chest radiography, and has produced clinical chest radiographs with lower patient dose and higher image quality than can be achieved with screen/film or photostimulable phosphor systems. In a previous publication the ability of the KCD prototype to acquire dual-energy x-ray images was demonstrated by scanning the same object twice, at two different kVp settings and with two different filters. The accuracy and repeatability of the KCD allowed separate bone and tissue images of a frozen turkey to be produced. For clinical dual-energy x-ray imaging, it would be desirable to acquire the two images of the patient at two different x-ray spectra in one scan, in order to prevent image artifacts due to patient motion. A dual-KCD imaging system for acquiring such images simultaneously is described in the patent literature. This paper describes one of the embodiments of such a dual-KCD dual-energy x-ray imager, which uses only one kVp, but two different filters. Images of a human chest phantom have been acquired using this single- kVp dual-filter technique using the KCD prototype, and are compared with dual-kVp dual- filter images, like those from Ref. 1, taken at the same skin dose.
Kinestatic charge detector (KCD) systems have potential uses in all fields of digital radiography including chest, abdominal, vascular, peripheral, dual energy subtraction and mammography. The purpose of this study was to investigate the development of a chest imaging protocol for a full field of view KCD system with regard to the effect of significant variations in patient chest thickness and its possible influence on kinestatic electric field settings. This was investigated by optimizing the kinestatic setting for a 5 lp/mm bar pattern imaged with 0, 5, 10, 15, and 20 cm of added Lucite to simulate varying patient chest thickness. Preliminary results demonstrate that variation in kinestatic settings due to variations in patient thickness affects the kinestatic electric field setting. Since only one field setting is available per image scan it becomes necessary to either optimize kinestatic settings for an estimated average patient thickness or for the density function of the expected region of interest (ROI).
A method utilizing digital dual-energy substraction x-ray radiography for measuring calcium densities localized to the cortical and cancellous regions of bone cross sections is described. The method is proposed as a technique for studying calcium loss in femurs of rats used in experiments modeling the temporal of osteoporosis. The densitometry data obtained for a rat leg consists of six x-ray projection images acquired at 30 degree(s) angular intervals about the bone axis by an intensifying screen/CCD camera imaging system. Images of bone cross sections are reconstructed by application of a maximum entropy algorithm constrained by the six projection images. The observed density data are further discriminated into cortical, cancellous and external regions on the basis of reference levels found on image density histograms.
A narrowing of the line spread function (LSF) has been observed when small amounts of low ionization potential polar dopant molecules were added to gas-filled high pressure kinestatic charge detector (KCD) for x-ray digital radiography. The LSF narrowing is attributed to different coexisting physical mechanisms. In this study, the impact of long-range dipole moment forces, associated with low ionization potential polar molecules, during ion-polars collisions, is investigated. Finally, this study is implemented with experimental examples.
KEYWORDS: Sensors, Image segmentation, Modulation transfer functions, X-rays, Ions, Signal detection, Dual energy imaging, Electric field sensors, X-ray detectors, Digital imaging
A kinestatic charge detector (KCD) with segmented signal-collection fingers was constructed to evaluate the dual-energy x-ray imaging performance of a KCD. The front segments of the KCD signal-collectors produce a digital low-energy image and the back segments produce a digital high-energy image. A gap between the front and back signal-collectors is used as a filter to increase the separation between the mean energies absorbed in the front and back segments. Preliminary measurements have been performed on the dual-energy KCD to determine its dual-energy imaging characteristics. The KCD output signal has been measured as a function of depth in the chamber. The ion drift velocity, modulation transfer function (MTF), detective quantum efficiency (DQE) and Wiener spectrum have been determined for both the front (low-energy) and back (high-energy) signal detection regions of the KCD.
The kinestatic charge detector (KCD) is a digital radiographic detector that in brief consists of a scanning drift chamber whose velocity is synchronized to the drift velocity of the ions produced therein by detected x rays, so as to cause the moving (kinetic) ions to appear at rest (static) in the patient rest frame. The spatial resolution of the KCD is limited by mobility dispersion when the detector operates with noble gases such as xenon or krypton. The magnitude and dependence on drift distance of the peak widths of ionic signal pulses produced in the KCD provide a measure of mobility dispersion. These parameters have been measured in a KCD filled with krypton gas at several high pressures and in the same gas mixed with dopants (such as amines, alkanes, ethers, etc.). Considerable improvement and probably elimination of mobility dispersion is seen. The four amines tested (ammonia, monomethyl amine, dimethylamine and trimethyamine) and dimethyl ether were successful in reducing mobility dispersion whereas none of the alkanes tested (which include methane, ethane, propane, butane and cyclopropane in order of decreasing ionization potential) were successful. A closer look revealed that even though some of the alkanes (cyclopropane and butane) had the desired ionization potential, all of them had a zero or near-zero dipole moment. This suggests that both ionization potential and dipole moment are important parameters for an effective dopant. The details of this effect are given in an accompanying paper (Giakos et al.). In addition, electron attachment and ionic recombination in a kinestatic charge detector lead to a loss in useful signal from the detector and a consequent reduction in the detective quantum efficiency (DQE) because the pulse height distribution gets broadened. Extremely small amounts (1 ppm or more) of oxygen and other electronegative impurities can cause significant electron attachment and consequent recombination loss in the detector. The addition of a polyatomic gas such as carbon dioxide (according to our findings) and methane (according to other workers, at very low pressures however) has been found to reduce electron attachment to a considerable extent via the Ramsauer Effect. The consequent reduction in the signal loss due to recombination results inconsiderable improvement in the signal obtained from the KCD. It was shown that use of 0.1 percent (1000 ppm) of carbon dioxide along with a dopant and a parent gas resulted in considerable reduction in electron attachment.
Experimental studies of the broadening of the full width at half maximum (FWHM) of the arrival time spectrum (ATS) in the research KCD system as a function of drift distance and x- ray tube mA settings were carried out. Results demonstrate that the broadening of the FWHM is mainly due to two factors, the space charge spreading of the ionic plane and the presence of more than one charge carrier with different mobilities in the ionic plane. Diffusional broadening is estimated to be almost negligible.
A liquid nitrogen cooled CCD TV camera from Astromed, Ltd., has been used for quantitative x-ray medical imaging. The CCD is coupled to a Gd2O3(Eu) transparent ceramic scintillator on loan from the Ceramics Division of the General Electric Research Laboratories with an 80 mm f 1.3 oscilloscope camera lens optimized for 2:1 demagnification. High-resolution single-energy x-ray images have been acquired of lead bar patterns, human heel bones, and human teeth. Dual-energy bone-mineral densitometry images have been acquired of the foot and the femur of a rat.
Frank DiBianca, Sreenivas Devidas, George Giakos, Shashidhar Kollipara, Joseph Laughter, Azad Mahmud, Senthilkumar Nagarajan, Qian Peng, Carlos Rodriguez, Herbert Zeman
The initial performance of a digital radiographic system incorporating a large-field (2016- channel) kinestatic charge detector and data acquisition electronics is discussed. The measured modulation transfer function of the system is 20% at 4 cy/mm. The measured detective quantum efficiency is 40 - 60%. These results are comparable with or better than those of current clinical (rare-earth film-screen and storage phosphor) systems. First images from the large-field system are shown and compared with those from commercial systems. Future system improvements in process or in planning are discussed.
A novel real-time portal imaging scanning detector, based on high-pressure gaseous electronics principles and operating up to 60 atmospheres, is presented and the predicted performance of this detector is analyzed. The idea is to utilize high pressure gaseous electronics imaging detectors operating in the saturation regime, aimed at improving image performance characteristics in real time portal imaging. As a result, beam localization errors are controlled, identified and corrected accurately and the patient radiotherapy treatment becomes more effective.
We have investigated possible clinical applications of a Kinestatic Charge Detector (KCD) for dual-energy x-ray imaging. The KCD is a good candidate as a detector for dual-energy radiography, because it is a digital detector with a high detective quantum efficiency, good spatial resolution and good scatter rejection. Computer simulations have been performed to design and optimize dual-energy KCDs for specific clinical applications. The clinical applications that have been investigated for dual-energy KCD imaging are chest radiography, mammography and osteoporosis. Experimental data have also been taken with a small research dual-energy KCD.
A method utilizing digital dual-energy subtraction X-ray radiography for measuring calcium densities localized to the cortical and cancellous regions of bone cross sections is described. The method is being used to study calcium loss in femurs of two differently treated groups of rats. In each experimental cohort, one group of rats is restrained from weightbearing on hind limbs by suspension from a tail harness. The other (control) group is allowed normal weightbearing on all limbs. The densitometry data for each rat leg consists of six X-ray projection images acquired at roughly equal angles about the bone axis by an intensifying screen/CCD camera imaging system. Images of bone cross sections are reconstructed by application of a maximum entropy algorithm constrained by the six projection images. The observed density data are further discriminated into cortical, cancellous and external regions on the basis of reference levels found on image density histograms.
A theoretical and an experimental study in the area of electronic medical imaging devices operating through Kinestatic Charge Detection principles is in progress, aimed at a better understanding of both the macroscopic electric potentials and the charge transfer (exchange) reactions. It will be demonstrated that long range attractive dipolar moment forces associated with low ionization potential polar molecules with a high dipole moment in an inert gas detective medium offer superior imaging performance over the non-polar counterparts with zero electric dipole. The dopant works by introducing a drastic reduction of the ion mobility dispersion. The goal of this study is to implement and develop high resolution imaging detectors with applications in medical detector technology.
KEYWORDS: Sensors, Krypton, Monte Carlo methods, Spatial resolution, Quantum efficiency, Modulation transfer functions, Ions, Xenon, Signal detection, Aluminum
In this paper, modulation transfer function and image noise measurements are presented for Kinestatic Charge Detectors employing high-pressure Kr gas doped with NH3 and CO2. Kr improves spatial resolution over Xe because, at equal x-ray mean free path, it has both reduced fluorescence reabsorption and reduced electron range. NH3 eliminates mobility dispersion (disparate ionic mobilities from multiple charge carriers) caused by gas impurities. CO2 reduces electron attachment and thus ion-ion recombination because it lowers the electron temperature, thereby increasing electron drift velocity via the Ramsauer effect.
An experimental study in the area of electronic detector technology for medical imaging applications is in progress, aimed at improving kinestatic charge detector (KCD) performance parameters such as spatial, contrast and temporal resolution. The purpose of this study is to utilize extremely high pressure gas imaging detectors, operating in the saturation mode, aimed at the reduction of the ionic signal pulse width thereby improving spatial resolution.
The spatial resolution of the Kinestatic Charge Detector (KCD) for digital radiography is limited by mobility dispersion when the detector operates with noble gases such as xenon or krypton. The magnitude and dependence on drift distance of the peak widths of ionic signal pulses produced in the KCD provide a measure of mobility dispersion. These parameters have been measured in a KCD filled with krypton gas at a pressure of 60 atm, and in the same gas alternately doped with 1.7% of each of the following amine additives: ammonia, methylamine, dimethylamine and trimethylamine. The ionization potentials of these dopants are 10.2, 9.0, 8.2 and 7.8 ev, respectively. While the undoped medium exhibited significant mobility dispersion, all four of the amine-doped media showed dramatic reduction or elimination of mobility dispersion.
A design for a dual-energy Kinestatic Charge Detector (KCD) with segmented charge collection fingers is discussed. The front segment of the KCD charge collectors will produce a digital low-energy image and the back segments will produce a digital high-energy image. A gap between the front and back collectors acts as a mid filter to increase the separation between the mean energies absorbed in the front and back segments. This dual-energy KCD design was optimized by using computer simulations to maximize a figure of merit defined as the square of the signal-to-noise ratio divided by the average absorbed dose. The optimal KCD parameters are presented for a dual-energy KCD designed for mammography. Preliminary experimental data are given for a small non imaging dual-energy KCD research detector.
A liquid nitrogen cooled CCD TV camera from Astromed, Ltd. has been used for quantitative X-ray medical imaging. The CCD camera is coupled to a Kodak Lanex Regular X-ray intensifying screen with a 5:1 macro lens for bone mineral densitometry of the femur of a rat for a study of the development of osteoporosis. As a feasibility study of the use of the CCD for mammography, a 2:1 macro lens has been used to couple the CCD to a clear CsI(Tl) crystal, 100 mm in diameter and 3 mm thick. The spatial resolution and quantum efficiency of the system is significantly improved by replacing the Lanex Regular screen with the CsI(Tl) crystal.
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