Dichroic beamsplitters, or dichroics, rely on the optical interference that occurs within thin-film layers to ensure the separation of the transmission and reflection of selective wavelengths of an incident beam of light at a given angle of incidence. Utilized within the optical systems of numerous space telescopes, they act to separate the incoming light spectrally and spatially into various channels. As space missions increasingly demand simultaneous observations across wavebands spanning extreme wavelength ranges, the necessity for exceedingly complex broadband dichroics has emerged. Subsequently, the uncertainties pertaining to their optical performance have also become more intricate. We use transmission line modeling to evaluate the spectral performance of multilayer coatings deposited on a substrate material for given thicknesses, materials, angles of incidence, and polarization. A dichroic recipe in line with the typical specifications and requirements of a dichroic is designed with the aid of a Monte Carlo simulation. The tolerances of the coating performance to systematic and random uncertainties from the manufacturing process, as well as from environmental changes in space, are studied. With the aid of accurate manufacturing recipes and uncertainty amplitudes from commercial manufacturers, this tool can predict variations in the optical performance that result from the propagation of each of these uncertainties for various hypothetical scenarios and systematic effects.
Dichroic beamsplitters, or dichroics, are filters that rely on the optical interference that occurs within thin layers to ensure the transmission and reflection of selective wavelengths of an incident beam of light. These optical components consist of a substrate coated on one or both surfaces with multiple layers of thin films, the spectral design and construction of which determine the isolation of particular wavebands. Discrepancies between the measured and expected spectral performance of optical elements with such coatings can largely be attributed to depositions errors and uncertainties in the refractive indices of the materials. Our model uses two-dimensional transmission line modeling to evaluate the transmittance of light through multilayer coatings deposited on a substrate material for given materials, angle of incidence and polarisation. This model allows us to perform Monte Carlo simulations to obtain statistical information about the tolerance of the coating performance to systematic and random uncertainties from the manufacturing process, as well as from environmental changes in space. With the aid of accurate manufacturing recipes and uncertainty amplitudes from commercial manufacturers, this tool can predict variations in the optical performance that result from the propagation of each of these uncertainties for various hypothetical scenarios. One particular application of this study are the dichroics of the ARIEL space telescope. We compare the predicted optical performance with transmission measurements at cryogenic temperatures for one of the ARIEL dichroics, which show the specification compliance of this prototype after many thermal cycles.
The search for Earth-like exoplanets, orbiting in the habitable zone of stars other than our Sun and showing biological activity, is one of the most exciting and challenging quests of the present time. Nulling interferometry from space, in the thermal infrared, appears as a promising candidate technique for the task of directly observing extra-solar planets. It has been studied for about 10 years by ESA and NASA in the framework of the Darwin and TPF-I missions respectively [1].
Nevertheless, nulling interferometry in the thermal infrared remains a technological challenge at several levels. Among them, the development of the "modal filter" function is mandatory for the filtering of the wavefronts in adequacy with the objective of rejecting the central star flux to an efficiency of about 105. Modal filtering [2] takes benefit of the capability of single-mode waveguides to transmit a single amplitude function, to eliminate virtually any perturbation of the interfering wavefronts, thus making very high rejection ratios possible.
The modal filter may either be based on single-mode Integrated Optics (IO) and/or Fiber Optics. In this paper, we focus on IO, and more specifically on the progress of the on-going “Integrated Optics” activity of the European Space Agency.
With a growing interest in mid- and far-infrared astronomy using cooled imaging and spectrometer instruments in highaltitude observatories and spaceflight telescopes, it is becoming increasingly important to characterise and assess the spectral performance of cooled multilayer filters across the Q-band atmospheric window. This region contains spectral features emitted by many astrophysical phenomena and objects fundamental to circumstellar and planetary formation theories. However extending interference filtering to isolate radiation at progressively longer wavelengths and improve photometric accuracy is an area of ongoing and challenging thin-film research. We have successfully fabricated cooled bandpass and edge filters with high durability for operation across the 15-30 μm Q-band region. In this paper we describe the rationale for selection of optical materials and properties of fabricated thin-film coatings for this region, together with FTIR spectral measurements and assessment of environmental durability.
As improvements to the optical design of spectrometer and radiometer instruments evolve with advances in detector
sensitivity, use of focal plane detector arrays and innovations in adaptive optics for large high altitude telescopes, interest
in mid-infrared astronomy and remote sensing applications have been areas of progressive research in recent years. This
research has promoted a number of developments in infrared coating performance, particularly by placing increased
demands on the spectral imaging requirements of filters to precisely isolate radiation between discrete wavebands and
improve photometric accuracy. The spectral design and construction of multilayer filters to accommodate these
developments has subsequently been an area of challenging thin-film research, to achieve high spectral positioning
accuracy, environmental durability and aging stability at cryogenic temperatures, whilst maximizing the far-infrared
performance. In this paper we examine the design and fabrication of interference filters in instruments that utilize the
mid-infrared N-band (6-15 μm) and Q-band (16-28 μm) atmospheric windows, together with a rationale for the selection
of materials, deposition process, spectral measurements and assessment of environmental durability performance.
Modal filtering is based on the capability of single-mode waveguides to transmit only one complex amplitude function to
eliminate virtually any perturbation of the interfering wavefronts, thus making very high rejection ratios possible in a
nulling interferometer. In the present paper we focus on the progress of Integrated Optics in the thermal infrared [6-20μm] range, one of the two candidate technologies for the fabrication of Modal Filters, together with fiber optics. In
conclusion of the European Space Agency's (ESA) "Integrated Optics for Darwin" activity, etched layers of chalcogenide
material deposited on chalcogenide glass substrates was selected among four candidates as the technology with the best
potential to simultaneously meet the filtering efficiency, absolute and spectral transmission, and beam coupling
requirements. ESA's new "Integrated Optics" activity started at mid-2007 with the purpose of improving the technology
until compliant prototypes can be manufactured and validated, expectedly by the end of 2009. The present paper aims at
introducing the project and the components requirements and functions. The selected materials and preliminary designs,
as well as the experimental validation logic and test benches are presented. More details are provided on the progress of
the main technology: vacuum deposition in the co-evaporation mode and subsequent etching of chalcogenide layers. In
addition, preliminary investigations of an alternative technology based on burying a chalcogenide optical fiber core into a
chalcogenide substrate are presented. Specific developments of anti-reflective solutions designed for the mitigation of
Fresnel losses at the input and output surface of the components are also introduced.
The health risks associated with the inhalation or ingestion of cadmium are well documented. During the past 18
years, EU legislation has steadily been introduced to restrict its use, leaving a requirement for the development of
replacement materials. This paper looks at possible alternatives to various cadmium II-VI dielectric compounds used in
the deposition of optical thin-films for various opto-electronic devices. Application areas of particular interest are for
infrared multilayer interference filter fabrication and solar cell industries, where cadmium-based coatings currently find
widespread use. The results of single and multilayer designs comprising CdTe, CdS, CdSe and PbTe deposited onto
group IV and II-VI materials as interference filters for the mid-IR region are presented. Thin films of SnN, SnO2, SnS
and SnSe are fabricated by plasma assisted CVD, reactive RF sputtering and thermal evaporation. Examination of these
films using FTIR spectroscopy, SEM, EDX analysis and optical characterisation methods provide details of material
dispersion, absorption, composition, refractive index, energy band gap and layer thicknesses. The optimisation of
deposition parameters in order to synthesise coatings with similar optical and semiconductor properties as those
containing cadmium has been investigated. Results of environmental, durability and stability trials are also presented.
The spectrometer sub-system of the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) Mid-Infrared Instrument (MIRI) contains four channels which spectrally multiplex the incoming radiation. This incident radiation, spanning a wavelength range from 4.8 to 28.8μm is spectrally divided between the channels using sets of three dichroics combined in series along the optical trains. The four channels, with overlapping wavelengths 4.8-7.8, 7.4-11.9, 11.4-18.3 and 18.3-28.8μm, are in-turn each split into three wavelength ranges to provide the required resolving power with the available detector pixels. This splitting of the wavelengths within each channel is achieved using three separate sets of dichroics and diffraction gratings, mounted on two wheels.
This paper describes the design of the dichroics together with a spectral performance model developed to simulate the system spectral throughput for each of the four channels of the MIRI instrument. Details of the spectral design, manufacture, testing and mounting of the dichroics are presented together with the opto-mechanical layout of the instrument.
The VISIR instrument for the European Southern Observatory (ESO) Very Large Telescope (VLT) is a thermal-infrared imager and spectrometer currently being developed by the French Service d'Astrophysique of CEA Saclay, and Dutch NFRA ASTRON Dwingeloo consortium. This cryogenic instrument will employ precision infrared bandpass filters in the N-(λ=7.5-14μm)and Q-(λ=16-28μm) band mid-IR atmospheric windows to study interstellar and circumstellar environments crucial for star and planetary formation theories. As the filters in these mid-IR wavelength ranges are of interest to many astronomical cryogenic instruments, a worldwide astronomical filter consortium was set up with participation from 12 differing institutes, each requiring instrument specific filter operating environments and optical metrology. This paper describes the design and fabrication methods used to manufacture these astronomical consortium filters, including the rationale for the selection of multilayer coating designs, temperature-dependant optical properties of the filter materials and FTIR spectral measurements showing the changes in passband and blocking performance on cooling to <50K. We also describe the development of a 7-14μm broadband antireflection coating deposited on Ge lenses and KRS-5 grisms for cryogenic operation at 40K.
The HIRDLS instrument contains 21 spectral channels spanning a wavelength range from 6 to 18 micrometer. For each of these channels the spectral bandwidth and position are isolated by an interference bandpass filter at 301 K placed at an intermediate focal plane of the instrument. A second filter cooled to 65 K positioned at the same wavelength but designed with a wider bandwidth is placed directly in front of each cooled detector element to reduce stray radiation from internally reflected in-band signals, and to improve the out- of band blocking. This paper describes the process of determining the spectral requirements for the two bandpass filters and the antireflection coatings used on the lenses and dewar window of the instrument. This process uses a system throughput performance approach taking the instrument spectral specification as a target. It takes into account the spectral characteristics of the transmissive optical materials, the relative spectral response of the detectors, thermal emission from the instrument, and the predicted atmospheric signal to determine the radiance profile for each channel. Using this design approach an optimal design for the filters can be achieved, minimizing the number of layers to improve the in- and transmission and to aid manufacture. The use of this design method also permits the instrument spectral performance to be verified using the measured response from manufactured components. The spectral calculations for an example channel are discussed, together with the spreadsheet calculation method. All the contributions made by the spectrally active components to the resulting instrument channel throughput are identified and presented.
This paper describes the design and manufacture of the filters and antireflection coatings used in the HIRDLS instrument. The multilayer design of the filters and coatings, choice of layer materials, and the deposition techniques adopted to ensure adequate layer thickness control is discussed. The spectral assessment of the filters and coatings is carried out using a FTIR spectrometer; some measurement results are presented together with discussion of measurement accuracy and the identification and avoidance of measurement artifacts. The post-deposition processing of the filters by sawing to size, writing of an identification code onto the coatings and the environmental testing of the finished filters are also described.
This paper describes the optical layout and spectral design requirements for filtering in the High-Resolution Dynamics Limb Sounder and reports progress o the manufacturing and testing of the submillimeter-sized cooled filters. We also report on the spectral and environmental performance of prototype wideband antireflection coatings that cover the entire spectral range of the focal plane array channels.
The High Resolution Dynamics Limb Sounder is described, with particular reference to the atmospheric measurements to be made and the rationale behind the measurement strategy. The demands this strategy places on the filters to be used in the instrument and the designs to which this leads to are detailed. A second set of filters at an intermediate image plane to reduce 'Ghost Imaging' is discussed together with their required spectral properties. The spectral characteristics of the primary and secondary filters in each channel are combined together with the spectral response of the detectors and other optical elements to obtain the system response weighted appropriately for the Planck function and atmospheric limb absorption. This method is used to demonstrate whether the out-of-band spectral blocking requirement for a channel is being met, and an example calculation is demonstrated showing how the blocking is built up for a representative channel. Finally, the techniques used to produce filters of the necessary submillimeter sizes together with the testing methods and procedures used to assess the environmental durability and establish space flight quality are discussed.
Cooled infrared filters have been used in pressure modulation and filter radiometry to measure the dynamics, temperature distribution and concentrations of atmospheric elements in various satellite radiometers. Invariably such instruments use precision infrared bandpass filters and coatings for spectral selection, often operating at cryogenic temperatures. More recent developments in the use of spectrally-selective cooled detectors in focal plane arrays have simplified the optical layout and reduced the component count of radiometers but have placed additional demands on both the spectral and physical performance requirements of the filters. This paper describes and contrasts the more traditional radiometers using discrete detectors with those which use focal plane detector array technology, with particular emphasis on the function of the filters and coatings in the two cases. Additionally we discuss the special techniques and materials used to fabricate infrared coatings and filters for use in space optics, and give examples of their application in the fabrication of some demanding long wavelength dichroics and filters. We also discuss the effects of the space environment on the stability and durability of high performance infrared filters and materials exposed to low Earth orbit for 69 months on the NASA Long Duration Exposure Facility (LDEF).
With continually increasing demands for improvements to atmospheric and
planetary remote-sensing instrumentation, for both high optical system performance
and extended operational lifetimes, an investigation to assess the effects of
prolonged exposure of the space environment to a series of infrared interference
filters and optical materials was promoted on the NASA LDEF mission. (2)
The NASA Long Duration Exposure Facility (LDEF) was launched by the Space
Shuttle to transport various science and technology experiments both to and from
space, providing investigators with the opportunity to study the effects of the
space environment on materials and systems used in space-flight applications.4
Preliminary results to be discussed consist of transmission measurements
obtained and processed from an infrared spectrophotometer both before (1983) and
after (1990) exposure compared with unexposed control specimens, together with
results of detailed microscopic and general visual examinations performed on the
experiment.
The principal lead telluride (PbTe) and zinc suiphide (ZnS) based multilayer
filters selected for this preliminary investigation consist of : an 8-12 m low
pass edge filter, a lO.6m 2.5% half bandwidth (HBW) double half-wave bandpass
filter, and a 10% HBW triple half-wave bandpass filter at 15 jim. Optical
substrates of MgF2 and KRS-5 (TlBrI) will also be discussed.
System aspects of filter radiometer optics used to sense planetary atmospheres are
described. Thus the lenses, dichroic beamsplitters and filters in longwave
channels of the Mars Observer PMIRR Pressure Modulator Infra Red Radiometer
instrument are assessed individually, and as systems at 20.7 tim, 31.9 tim. 47.2 m
wavelength. A window filter and a longwave calibration filter of the SCARAB
earth observer instrument are assessed similarly.
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