Coda wave has been demonstrated to be a powerful tool for non-destructive evaluation and test (NDT) since it is very sensitivity to changes in media. This sensitivity is attributed to the fact that its trailing parts have traveled a large volume and may have traversed the defect region repeatedly. The diffusion equation, describing the propagation of the average energy, is one of the basic theories in current coda wave-based NDT techniques. Diffusion coefficient is usually assumed to be independent of stress changes and defect positions in concrete structures; however, the heterogeneity and inhomogeneity inherent of concrete materials may cause this assumption problematic, especially for large-size concrete structures. Here, a typical four-bending test with varied loads is performed on a real-size reinforced concrete beam. A couple of transducers are installed to cover its top and side surfaces to collect coda waveforms at each loading step. Then diffusion coefficient values are calculated under varied external loads and at multiple receiver locations by applying the diffusion equation to the associated coda wave measurements. The results show a trend that diffusion coefficient values in general increase with loads, but minute cracks break this trend and lead decreases in its values by introducing more tortuous propagation paths. These results are also consistent with the trend in our direct wave velocity measurements. Diffusion coefficient complementing other wave attributes such as direct wave velocity may offer a novel potential approach for concrete structural NDT applications.
Coda waves experiencing long propagation time and travel path are sensitive to weak changes in a medium. Coda wave interferometry (CWI) is an efficient method to analyze coda waveform variations. In this paper, the CWI technique is used to detect minute cracks and stress changes in a 6-meter reinforced concrete beam. Specifically, four-bending tests with varied loads are conducted on the beam, and a couple of sensors are installed sparsely to collect ultrasonic wave signals. Then for each source-receiver pair, the coda waveform variations between load steps are quantified using the CWI technique. The results show that the stress changes and minute cracks in the beam can be detected through the velocity changes and decorrelations of the coda waveforms. The presented study may provide a useful tool for concrete structural nondestructive evaluation and testing (NDT) applications.
The heterogeneities contained in concrete will cause strongly multiple scattering behaviors during the propagation of ultrasonic waves, forming the so-called coda waves. External loads will slightly change concrete structural size and further introduce stretching effects on coda waveforms. In this paper, coda waves are collected from several concrete samples under different loads, and the waveform variations are quantified through a stretching technique. The results show that their stretching ratios are varied according to external load strengths, which implies that stress changes in concrete can be detected by coda wave measurements. The presented study could be very value for nondestructive testing of concrete structures.
Perturbations worked as extra scatters will cause coda waveform distortions; thus, coda wave with long propagation time and traveling path are sensitive to micro-defects in strongly heterogeneous media such as concretes. In this paper, we conduct varied external loads on a life-size concrete slab which contains multiple existing micro-cracks, and a couple of sources and receivers are installed to collect coda wave signals. The waveform decorrelation coefficients (DC) at different loads are calculated for all available source-receiver pair measurements. Then inversions of the DC results are applied to estimate the associated distribution density values in three-dimensional regions through kernel sensitivity model and least-square algorithms, which leads to the images indicating the micro-cracks positions. This work provides an efficiently non-destructive approach to detect internal defects and damages of large-size concrete structures.
Coda waves experiencing multiple scattering behaviors are sensitive to weak changes occurring in media. In this paper, a typical four-point bending test with varied external loads is conducted on a 30-meter T-beam that is removed from a bridge after being in service for 15 years, and the coda wave signals are collected with a couple of sources-receivers pairs. Then the observed coda waves at different loads are compared to calculate their relative velocity variations, which are utilized as the parameter to distinct the compression and tensile zones as well as determine the neutral axis position. Without any prior knowledge of the concrete beam, the estimated axis position agrees well with the associated strain gage measurement results, and the zones bearing stress and tension behaviors are indicated. The presented work offers significant potential for Non-Destructive Testing and Evaluation of full-size concrete structures in future work.
An important task for remote sensing applications is the characterization of material properties, which can be accomplished by estimating physics-based parameters from optical scattering off a target’s surface. In this paper, a novel approach is described to generate parameter-based images by applying the modified polarimetric bidirectional reflectance distribution function (pBRDF) model to the polarimetric imaging measurements collected with the University of Arizona’s Ground Multiangle SpectroPolarimetric Imager (Ground-MSPI). Values for complex refractive index (η), slope variance roughness (σ2) and diffuse scattering coefficient (ρd) for each pixel are jointly estimated. Images consisting of the parameter values are generated by using the estimation results and optimized by contrast-ratio enhancement algorithms. The approach offers significant potential for remote targets analysis and novel imaging technology development.
The polarimetric bidirectional reflectance distribution function (pBRDF) describes the relationships between incident and scattered Stokes parameters, but the familiar surface-only microfacet pBRDF cannot capture diffuse scattering contributions and depolarization phenomena. We propose a modified pBRDF model with a diffuse scattering component developed from the Kubelka–Munk and Le Hors et al. theories, and apply it in the development of a method to jointly estimate refractive index, slope variance, and diffuse scattering parameters from a series of Stokes parameter measurements of a surface. An application of the model and estimation approach to experimental data published by Priest and Meier shows improved correspondence with measurements of normalized Mueller matrix elements. By converting the Stokes/Mueller calculus formulation of the model to a degree of polarization (DOP) description, the estimation results of the parameters from measured DOP values are found to be consistent with a previous DOP model and results.
Remote sensing of the refractive index of a target surface has important application for detection and classification tasks. In this paper, we introduce a modified pBRDF model with a diffuse scattering term and apply it in the development of a method to jointly estimate the refractive index, slope variance roughness and diffuse scattering parameter from a series of Stokes parameter measurements of a surface. This work is a significant extension of prior work involving degree-of-polarization (DOP) measurements. Numerical trials are presented that indicate diffuse scattering can significantly affect the surface parameter estimation and estimation accuracy improves considerably by including the diffuse component in the scattering model. We also illustrate that using Stokes measurements for the estimation provides more accuracy than using DOP measurements for a limited number of observations. The estimation approach is applied to Stokes and DOP measurements of several material surfaces published previously in the literature and the parameter estimation produces curves that have excellent correspondence with the measurement values.
Optical polarimetry is an approach that shows promise for refractive index estimation from scattering off a target’s surface, which is task of pivotal importance for remote sensing and computer graphics applications. However, the estimation often relies on a microfacet polarimetric bidirectional reflectance distribution function (pBRDF) that is limited to specular targets involving single surface scattering. In this paper, we develop an analytic model for the degree of polarization (DOP) reflected from a rough surface that includes a multiplicative factor for the effect of diffuse scattering. Evaluation of the model indicates that diffuse scattering can significantly affect the DOP values, and the biased DOP values can further lead to inaccurate estimation of the surface refractive index.
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