This paper describes a heliostat metrology system which is developed based on deflectometry, utilizing a static perforated panel instead of conventional dynamic monitor displays to provide incident rays. The developed method is named Static Screen Deflectometry (SSD). This robust and scalable method is especially valuable for outdoor tests of large reflectors used in Concentrating Solar-thermal Power (CSP) systems. The developed method has been successfully demonstrated on a 2.4 𝑚 × 3.3 𝑚 float glass deformable reflector bent to focus sunlight at 113 𝑚 distance throughout a day. From images obtained from a camera at 50𝑚 distance, the reflector surface was measured to an accuracy of less than 1 𝑚𝑟𝑎𝑑 rms slope error in the full test scope.
When a telescope doesn’t reach a reasonable point spread function on the detector or detectable wavefront quality after initial assembly, a coarse phase alignment on-sky is crucial. Before utilizing a closed loop adaptive optics system, the observatory needs a strategy to actively align the telescope sufficiently for fine wavefront sensing (WFS). This paper presents a method of early-stage alignment using a stochastic parallel-gradient-descent (SPGD) algorithm which performs random perturbations to the optics of a three mirror anastigmat telescope design. The SPGD algorithm will drive the telescope until the wavefront error is below the acceptable range of the fine adaptive optics system to hand the telescope over. The focused spot size over the field of view is adopted as a feed parameter to SPGD algorithm and wavefront peak-to-valley error values are monitored to directly compare our mechanical capabilities to our alignment goal of diffraction limited imaging and fine wavefront sensing.
Continuous wavefront sensing benefits space observatories in on-orbit optical performance maintenance. To measure the phase of a wavefront, phase retrieval is an attractive technique as it uses multiple point spread function (PSF) images that are acquired by the telescope itself without extra metrology systems nor complicated calibration. The focus diverse phase retrieval utilizes PSFs from predetermined defocused positions to enhance the dynamic range of the algorithm. We describe an updated visible light active optics testbed with the addition of a linear motorized focus stage. The performance of the phase retrieval algorithm in broadband is tested under various cases. While broadband pass filters have advantages in higher signal-to-noise ratio (SNR), the performance of phase retrieval can be restricted due to blurred image caused by diffraction and increased computing cost. We used multiple bandpass filters (10 nm, 88 nm, and 150 nm) and investigated effects of bandwidth on the accuracy and required image acquisition conditions such as SNR, reaching accuracies below 20 nm RMS wavefront error at the widest bandwidth. We also investigated the dynamic range of the phase retrieval algorithm depending on the bandwidth and required amount of defocus to expand dynamic range. Finally, we simulated the continuous wavefront sensing and correction loop with a range of statistically generated representative telescope disturbance time series to test for edge cases.
Precise characterization of deformable mirrors (DMs) is crucial for optimizing wavefront sensing and control systems. This study employs a 4D PhaseCam 6000 interferometer to investigate the temporal behavior of a 97-actuator ALPAO DM across varying levels of aberration. Analysis of root mean square (RMS) differences and changes in the first 37 Zernike polynomials demonstrates a clear correlation between applied aberrations and temporal variability. We observe a consistent pattern: as the applied magnitude of the RMS to the DM increases, so does the disparity between maximum and minimum RMS values across all configurations, with exceptions noted in cases involving coma and scenarios without applied aberrations (DM powered on and DM powered off). Notably, in 11 out of 14 measurements, either oblique astigmatism or vertical astigmatism exhibits the highest variability, often appearing together, underscoring their collective impact on DM performance over time.
In the development of space-based large telescope systems, having the capability to perform active optics correction allows correcting wavefront aberrations caused by thermal perturbations so as to achieve diffraction-limited performance with relaxed stability requirements. We present a method of active optics correction used for current ground-based telescopes and simulate its effectiveness for a large honeycomb primary mirror in space. We use a finite-element model of the telescope to predict misalignments of the optics and primary mirror surface errors due to thermal gradients. These predicted surface error data are plugged into a Zemax ray trace analysis to produce wavefront error maps at the image plane. For our analysis, we assume that tilt, focus and coma in the wavefront error are corrected by adjusting the pointing of the telescope and moving the secondary mirror. Remaining mid- to high-order errors are corrected through physically bending the primary mirror with actuators. The influences of individual actuators are combined to form bending modes that increase in stiffness from low-order to high-order correction. The number of modes used is a variable that determines the accuracy of correction and magnitude of forces. We explore the degree of correction that can be made within limits on actuator force capacity and stress in the mirror. While remaining within these physical limits, we are able to demonstrate sub-25 nm RMS surface error over 30 hours of simulated data. The results from this simulation will be part of an end-to-end simulation of telescope optical performance that includes dynamic perturbations, wavefront sensing, and active control of alignment and mirror shape with realistic actuator performance.
KEYWORDS: Tolerancing, Received signal strength, Telescopes, Mirrors, Wavefront errors, Observatories, Space mirrors, Space telescopes, Optical surfaces, Optical design
The size of the optics used in observatories is often limited by fabrication, metrology, and handling technology, but having a large primary mirror provides significant benefits for scientific research. The evolution of rocket launch options enables heavy payload carrying on orbit and outstretching the telescope’s form-factor choices. Moreover, cost per launch is lower than the traditional flight method, which is obviously advantageous for various novel space observatory concepts. The University of Arizona has successfully fabricated many large-scale primary optics for ground-based observatories including the Large Binocular Telescope (LBT, 8.4 meter diameter two primary mirrors), Large Synoptic Survey Telescope (now renamed to Vera C. Rubin Observatory, 8.4 meter diameter monolithic primary and tertiary mirror), and the Giant Magellan Telescope (GMT, 8.4 meter diameter primary mirror seven segments). Launching a monolithic primary mirror into space could bypass many of the difficulties encountered during the assembly and deployment of the segmented primary mirrors. However, it might bring up unprecedented challenges and hurdles, also. We explore and foresee the expected challenges and evaluate them. To estimate the tolerance and optical error budget of a large optical system in space such as three mirror anastigmat telescope, we have developed a methodology that considers various errors from design, fabrication, assembly, and environmental factors.
KEYWORDS: Signal to noise ratio, Phase retrieval, Point spread functions, Monochromatic aberrations, Wavefront sensors, Wavefront errors, Interferometers, Space telescopes, Telescopes
Continuous wavefront sensing on future space telescopes allows relaxation of stability requirements while still allowing on-orbit diffraction-limited optical performance. We consider the suitability of phase retrieval to continuously reconstruct the phase of a wavefront from on-orbit irradiance measurements or point spread function (PSF) images. As phase retrieval algorithms do not require reference optics or complicated calibrations, it is a preferable technique for space observatories, such as the Hubble Space Telescope or the James Webb Space Telescope. To increase the robustness and dynamic range of the phase retrieval algorithm, multiple PSF images with known amount of defocus can be utilized. In this study, we describe a recently constructed testbed including a 97 actuator deformable mirror, changeable entrance pupil stops, and a light source. The aligned system wavefront error is below ≈ 30 nm. We applied various methods to generate a known wavefront error, such as defocus and/or other aberrations, and found the accuracy and precision of the root mean squared error of the reconstructed wavefronts to be less than ≈ 10 nm and ≈ 2 nm, respectively. Further, we discuss the signal-to-noise ratios required for continuous dynamic wavefront sensing. We also simulate the case of spacecraft drifting and verify the performance of the phase retrieval algorithm for continuous wavefront sensing in the presence of realistic disturbances.
Extreme wavefront correction is required for coronagraphs on future space telescopes to reach 10-8 or better starlight suppression for the direct imaging and characterization of exoplanets in reflected light. Thus, a suite of wavefront sensors working in tandem with active and adaptive optics are used to achieve stable, nanometerlevel wavefront control over long observations. In order to verify wavefront control systems, comprehensive and accurate integrated models are needed. These should account for any sources of on-orbit error that may degrade performance past the limit imposed by photon noise. An integrated model of wavefront sensing and control for a space-based coronagraph was created using geometrical raytracing and physical optics propagation methods. Our model concept consists of an active telescope front end in addition to a charge-6 vector vortex coronagraph instrument. The telescope uses phase retrieval to guide primary mirror bending modes and secondary mirror position to control the wavefront error within tens of nanometers. The telescope model is dependent on raytracing to simulate these active optics corrections for compensating the wavefront errors caused by misalignments and thermal gradients in optical components. Entering the coronagraph, a self-coherent camera is used for focal plane wavefront sensing and digging the dark hole. We utilize physical optics propagation to model the coronagraphy’s sensitivity to mid and high-order wavefront errors caused by optical surface errors and pointing jitter. We use our integrated models to quantify expected starlight suppression versus wavefront sensor signal-to-noise ratio.
KEYWORDS: Space telescopes, Design and modelling, Telescopes, Observatories, Mirrors, James Webb Space Telescope, Space mirrors, Equipment, Astronomy, Coronagraphy
New development approaches, including launch vehicles and advances in sensors, computing, and software, have lowered the cost of entry into space, and have enabled a revolution in low-cost, high-risk Small Satellite (SmallSat) missions. To bring about a similar transformation in larger space telescopes, it is necessary to reconsider the full paradigm of space observatories. Here we will review the history of space telescope development and cost drivers, and describe an example conceptual design for a low cost 6.5 m optical telescope to enable new science when operated in space at room temperature. It uses a monolithic primary mirror of borosilicate glass, drawing on lessons and tools from decades of experience with ground-based observatories and instruments, as well as flagship space missions. It takes advantage, as do large launch vehicles, of increased computing power and space-worthy commercial electronics in low-cost active predictive control systems to maintain stability. We will describe an approach that incorporates science and trade study results that address driving requirements such as integration and testing costs, reliability, spacecraft jitter, and wavefront stability in this new risk-tolerant “LargeSat” context.
Deflectometry is a versatile optical testing tool used in various fields, from astronomy to industrial applications, due to its non-null testing capability which facilitates precise measurement despite challenging optical surfaces and system layout constraints. In this manuscript, we present novel variational advancements to traditional deflectometry, towards universal functionality and system friendliness. Traditional dark-field illumination is an inspection technique that is sometimes used to detect particles on a specular surface. Problems arise in its repeatability, as an intensity-based measurement is vulnerably dependent on the testing conditions of time, limiting its ability to be used in automated fashion. The first advancement leverages phase algorithms commonly seen in deflectometry; by adding a secondary light source (normal to the surface) and modulating each source's intensity with a time-varying sinusoid. The phase-based information has a higher sensitivity to the light scattered from a defect producing a more robust computational image process method that is now insensitive to the environment. The second advancement is an alignment method to obtain lower-order shape. While deflectometry proves effective in measuring mid-to-high frequency surface shape, it faces challenges when assessing low-order shape measurements like power, astigmatism, and coma due to relative position and alignment error between the unit under test (UUT) and the deflectometry system. To avert the necessity of additional instruments like a coordinate measuring machine, laser trackers, or interferometers, we leveraged computational fiducials and sensitivity matrices to identify and address misalignments effectively. With enhanced capabilities and system-friendly features, our advanced deflectometry techniques provide powerful options in optical testing. By addressing the challenges in low-order shape measurements and incorporating dark field testing, our approaches extend the potential of deflectometry as a valuable tool in optical metrology across a broad spectrum of industries and scientific endeavors.
The large binocular telescope (LBT) can spectrally characterize faint objects from the ultraviolet (UV) to the near infrared (NIR) using two instruments, such as multiobjects double spectrograph (MODS) and LBT utility camera in the infrared (LUCI), which are pairs of imagers and spectrographs. Although LUCI can cover the NIR bands (0.9 to 2.4 μm), we currently need to use both LUCIs at the same time with existing gratings and filters. We report on the design and initial construction of a modular system called mask-oriented breadboard implementation for unscrambling spectra (MOBIUS) that enables a single LUCI to produce a full NIR spectrum (0.9 to 2.4 μm) in a single exposure. MOBIUS is a Littrow type spectrograph that is installed within the limited space of exchangeable mask frame space of LUCI. This plug-in concept requires no modification to the current instrument while dispersing the input slit perpendicular to the dispersion direction of the gratings in LUCI. With MOBIUS, we can utilize a slit length up to 2.3 arcsecond to acquire zJHK spectra without mixing orders at the LUCI image plane. In binocular observations with the LBT, a MODS spectrograph will be used with a LUCI + MOBIUS to acquire spectra across the full optical NIR wavelength range from 0.3 to 2.4 μm simultaneously. This will benefit studies of transient sources from rotating asteroids in our solar system to gamma-ray bursts, as well as anything with broad spectral features or unknown redshifts. The design process, tolerances, and initial table-top testing results to verify the operation of MOBIUS are presented in this work.
For any surface metrology system that obtains measurement with the aid of an imaging system, distortion must be carefully scrutinized. Both intrinsic lens distortion and perspective distortion embed surface error distributions that skew the interpretation of resultant surface maps. Either displaces acquired information due to the imaging process. Here, we quantify the origins of distortion, its modeling philosophy, and the effects of its digital correction procedure. This study includes simulation for lens-distorted systems such as interferometers and perspective-distorted systems such as monoscopic fringe projection profilometry and deflectometry. Summarily, this study hopes to clarify differences in low-order shape between surface metrology instrument measurements in which surface maps were not rectified for distortion.
A comprehensive education of optical engineers is of paramount importance to the development of the industry. While optical sciences and engineering curricula are set up to teach theoretical concepts comprehensively, there appears to be a lack of required coursework that teaches students how to use industry-standard software that they will inevitably use in their careers. The Practical Optics Workshop (POW) is an initiative at the University of Arizona’s Wyant College of Optical Sciences to support the education of students that use optical design software. POW’s aim is to bridge the gap between the theory of optical system design and the problems the optical engineers of the future will face daily. POW has principally engaged students through short workshop sessions and optical design problems through inquiry-based learning activities. However, during the COVID-19 pandemic new activities have been designed to support self-paced and virtual learning to ensure the accessibility of Optical Design software education. We present the status of POW’s current initiatives and how they have impacted student learning, as well as the design of future initiatives that POW is developing for a self-paced curriculum.
The Large Fiber Array Spectroscopic Telescope, LFAST, will use optical fibers to combine light from thousands of small telescopes at centrally located high-resolution spectrometers. LFAST aims to use mass replication of small, self-contained telescope systems to provide ELT sized collecting area and spectroscopic capabilities at a drastically reduced price. However, fundamental constraints such as étendue, fiber modal noise, and focal-plane sampling that affect the size and complexity of spectrometers for single telescope ELTs also impact LFAST. We are carrying out a three year study to tackle these challenges. In this paper, we describe the conceptual designs for the fiber feed assemblies that carry light from the individual telescopes to a centralized location, and the high-resolution spectrometer that accepts this light.
This paper describes the preliminary mechanical design and optomechanics of LFAST, the Large Fiber Array Spectroscopic Telescope. The 1,200 m2 array comprises 132, open air, alt-az tracking mounts, each carrying 20 small coaligned telescopes in a 5 m square U-shaped space frame about a central, dual-axis worm drive. Each unit telescope has a 0.76 m, f/3.5 mirror, a prime focus assembly with field corrector and a guide camera, and feeds a 17um, 1.3 arcsecond optical fiber. LFAST was designed specifically as a fiber fed spectroscopic telescope. By being built from thousands of mass-produced components it will be much cheaper per square meter of collecting area than phased monolithic telescopes currently under construction, like GMT and ELT. Cost effective dome-less operation is made possible by the structural design that maximizes stiffness and active compensation for wind induced jitter. The primary mirrors are protected when not in use by sub-horizon pointing of tracking mount and mirror covers.
The Orbiting Astronomical Satellite for Investigating Stellar Systems (OASIS) is a 20-meter class proposed space terahertz observatory supported by an inflatable membrane architecture. To measure 150 mm and 1m models of the A1 reflective membrane antenna, two deflectometry configurations were designed. The smaller assembly and its corresponding deflectometer were simulated, built in our laboratory, and produce a reconstructable signal for clocked measurements of the highly-sloped pneumatic surface. We use non-sequential raytracing simulation to bound the maximum contributions of all shape errors and suggest the N-Rotations algorithm to remove the remaining radially asymmetric errors. Then, the 1m prototype assembly was tested inside a thermal vacuum chamber (TVAC). Differential deflectometry measurements tracked the 1m surface shape changes as it was subjected to a variety of environmental setpoints, cycled between three inflation gases, and also during controlled puncture. We summarize our development and results for absolute measurements as well as from TVAC testing.
Deformable reflector technology has mainly been used for observations at visible and infrared wavelengths but has yet to be utilized for terahertz wavefront correction. We present an actuator for deformable reflectors that overcomes challenges particular to this wavelength such as a millimeter-scale stroke requirement. Bending moment actuators are used in both the radial and tangential directions to correct low-order wavefront aberrations. Strong and flexible materials such as Delrin are used for the reflector material. Such a deformable antenna can be used to correct wavefronts on future large radio antennae such as the Orbiting Astronomical Satellite for Investigating Stellar Systems (OASIS). This antenna uses a 20-meter thin membrane as its primary radio wave collector. A deformable reflector may be added to this system to allow for looser tolerances on the primary antenna shape and correct for wavefront errors inherent in an inflatable optic. To predict the wavefront errors that may be expected when using this type of thin membrane primary reflector, TVAC (Thermal Vacuum Chamber) test methods are also presented in these proceedings.
Molecular clouds are a crucial stage in the lifecycle of a star, and the far ultraviolet (FUV) spectral range is a prime observation band. Hyperion is an FUV space telescope that investigates the birth clouds of stars using a high-resolution spectrometer. To meet the scientific requirements, we developed and evaluated a spectrometer that covers the 140.5 to 164.5 nm wavelength range with a spectral resolution higher than 30,000. We employed on-axis and on-plane dispersive optic layouts to control the aberration from a large aspect ratio slit (10 arcmin × 2.5 arcsec, aspect ratio R = 240). The cross-dispersion isolates three orders from the échelle grating (n = − 19, −18, and −17), and the subsequent two-mirror freeform imaging optics form a two-dimensional spectral distribution on a 50 mm × 50 mm detector array. The geometrical and spectral performances of this innovative design are evaluated.
Various ground-based and space-based future telescope technologies are currently being conceptualized, designed, prototyped and tested to perform next generation astronomical sciences. They include (1) the alignment of segmented multi-order diffractive elements for the Nautilus space observatory; (2) the inflatable terahertz OASIS space telescope primary mirror characterization metrology; (3) active alignment of the laser truss-based Large Binocular Telescope prime focus camera; (4) the modular cross-dispersion spectroscopy unit, MOBIUS, used at the prime focal plane of the Large Binocular Telescope; (5) pupil segmentation topological optimization for future high contrast imaging telescopes; and (6) the optical design of the long slit UV spectroscopy space telescope Hyperion. This suite of enabling optical technologies and concept designs will redefine how humans understand the genesis and future of our universe.
Accurate system calibration remains an area of active improvement in deflectometry. Since deflectometry requires the geometry information of all participating hardware to be well known, miscalibration can mar the accuracy of surface reconstruction especially in lower order shapes. To uphold reconstruction fidelity, extra measuring instruments (i.e. coordinate measuring machines, laser trackers, metering rods) or reference features (i.e. fiducial points or reference mirror) to find out the positions of a camera, a screen, and a unit under test are used. These methods provide reliable calibration but are resource-intensive. In this paper, we introduce an alignment algorithm to calibrate the geometry of a deflectometry configuration. We leverage the concept of alignment algorithm which uses a sensitivity model. With the aid of ray tracing simulation, the relationship between camera pixels and screen pixels of a deflectometer is quantitatively established. This pixel-to-pixel relationship enables us to generate computational imaging of screen and characterize the tendency of misalignments of the deflectometer. On top of that, we can calculate and make multiplexed patterns of screen which highlight the effect of misalignments. We set specific indices and corresponding screen patterns for each alignment parameters to build the sensitivity model. The initial simulation result shows that the algorithm can estimate misalignment status. We believe that this algorithm can be an alternative and efficient calibration process for the deflectometry system, especially when the usage of extra measuring devices is limited.
Hyperion is a far-UV mission that investigates the birth clouds of stars using a 40 cm aperture telescope feeding an imaging long-slit spectrometer. The science requirements of the mission dictate that the spectrometer covers 140.5- 164.5 nm spectral range with resolution greater than 30,000. We employ smart and efficient design to create a longslit, cross dispersed, echelle spectrometer that utilizes a two-mirror freeform imaging optics. Echelle spectra for n = - 19, -18, and -17 over a 10 arcmin × 2.5 arcsec (length × width) FFOV are imaged onto the focal plane. We simulate the optical performance and the expected spectral efficiency.
We introduce the design of a highly compact, non-planar illumination source for deflectometry. The source emits uniform and Lambertian light from a curved area resembling the inner bore of a cylinder. When equipped with motion hardware, the ring source behaves like a spatially modulated screen with a pixel pitch comparable to that of a typical LCD monitor. If this source, a detector, and test optic are coaxially aligned, then on-axis deflectometry measurements are possible for axicons and centrally obscured, convex optics. This paper highlights the illumination design behind a cylindrical ring source and its implementation as a prototype in the visible spectrum.
Reconfigurable freeform optical systems enable greatly enhanced imaging and focusing performance within nonsymmetric, compact, and ergonomic form factors. In this paper, several improvements are presented for the design, test, and data analysis with these systems. Specific improvements include definition of a modal G and C vector basis set based on Chebyshev polynomials for the design and analysis of non-circular optical systems. This framework is then incorporated into a parametric optimization process and tested with the Tomographic Ionized-carbon Mapping Experiment (TIME), a reconfigurable optical system. Beyond design, a reconfigurable deflectometry system enhances metrology to measure a fast, f/1.26 convex optic as well as an Alvarez lens. Further improvements in an infrared deflectometry system show accuracy around λ/10 of the notoriously difficult low-order power. Working together, the mathematical vector polynomial set, the programmatic optical design approach, and various deflectometry-based optical testing technologies enable more flexible and optimal utilization of freeform optical components and design configurations.
The LUCI (LBT Utility Camera in the Infrared) instruments are a pair of near infrared (NIR) imagers and spectrographs for the Large Binocular Telescope (LBT) that include a set of cryogenic exchangeable focal plane masks. Although LUCI covers the NIR zJHK bands at different resolutions with existing gratings, it is not currently possible to get zJHK in a single exposure with a single LUCI which is required for some planetary science programs. To produce a simultaneous zJHK spectrum with a single LUCI, we designed a system consisting of small and simple optical elements to fit within the limited space in the focal plane mask frame to cross-disperse fixed short slits. This system, called MOBIUS (Mask-Oriented Breadboard Implementation for Unscrambling Spectra), consists of a double-folding mirror, a collimating spherical mirror with 180 mm radius of curvature, and a dispersing prism with the rear surface mirror-coated. MOBIUS disperses the input slit perpendicular to the dispersion direction of the gratings in LUCI. The resulting order separation is at least ∼2.7 arcsecond, allowing a slit length of up to ∼2.3 arcsec without mixing orders at the LUCI image plane. Since MOBIUS would be introduced into the existing light path via the exchangeable slit mask mechanism, no modification to the current LUCI instrument is needed. Eventually, binocular observations combining one of the Multi-Object Double Spectrographs (MODS) with LUCI+MOBIUS at the LBT will provide simultaneous coverage from 0.3 to 2.4 μm for studies of asteroids and other faint solar system bodies.
In this study, we performed alignment state estimation simulations and compared the performance of two Computer Aided Alignment (hereafter CAA) algorithms i.e. ‘Merit Function Regression (MFR)’ and ‘Multiple Design Configuration Optimization (MDCO)’ for a TMA optical system. The former minimizes the merit function using multi-field wavefront error measurements from single configuration, while the latter minimizes the merit function using single-field measured wavefront error from multiple configurations. The optical system used is an unobscured three-mirror anastigmat (TMA) optical system of 70mm in diameter, and F/5.0. It is designed for an unmanned aerial vehicle for coastal water remote sensing. The TMA consists of two aspherical mirrors, a spherical mirror and a flat folding mirror. Based on the sensitivity analysis, we set the tilt x, y of tertiary mirror as a compensator, and not considered decenter of tertiary mirror because of its spherical characteristic. For the simulation, we introduced Gaussian distribution of initial misalignment to M3. It has the mean value of zero and standard deviation of 0.5 mrad. The initial simulation result of alignment state estimation shows that both algorithms can meet the alignment requirement, λ/10 RMS WFE at 633nm. However, when we includes measurement noise, the simulation result of MFR shows greater standard deviation in RMS WFE than that of MDCO. As for the measurement, the MDCO requires single on-axis field while the MFR requires multiple fields, we concluded that the MDCO is more practical method to align the off-axis TMA optics than MFR.
The design and performance analysis of a new sensor is introduced which is on board a small unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) for coastal water remote sensing. The top level requirements of sensor are to have at least 4cm spatial resolution at 500m operating height, and 4° field of view (FOV) and 100 signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) value at 660nm. We determined the design requirements that its entrance pupil diameter is 70mm, and F-ratio is 5.0 as an optical design requirement. The three-mirror system is designed including aspheric primary and secondary mirrors, which optical performance are 1/15 λRMS wavefront error and 0.75 MTF value at 660nm. Considering the manufacturing and assembling phase, we performed the sensitivity, tolerance, and stray-light analysis. From these analysis we confirmed this optical system, which is having 4cm spatial resolution at 500m operating height, will be applied with remote sensing researches.
Access to the requested content is limited to institutions that have purchased or subscribe to SPIE eBooks.
You are receiving this notice because your organization may not have SPIE eBooks access.*
*Shibboleth/Open Athens users─please
sign in
to access your institution's subscriptions.
To obtain this item, you may purchase the complete book in print or electronic format on
SPIE.org.
INSTITUTIONAL Select your institution to access the SPIE Digital Library.
PERSONAL Sign in with your SPIE account to access your personal subscriptions or to use specific features such as save to my library, sign up for alerts, save searches, etc.