Lithographic methods of imaging in resist can be extended with the addition of immersion fluid.
The higher index of refraction fluid can be used to print smaller features by increasing the numerical
aperture beyond the limits of dry lithography. Alternately, an immersion optical system can achieve
a larger depth of focus at the same numerical aperture as the equivalent dry lithography system.
When numerical apertures are significantly greater than 1.0, polarization effects start to impact
resolution seriously. Special illumination conditions will be used to extend resolution limits.
Additional factors that affect imaging in resist need to be included if we are to achieve new
resolution limits using high index of refraction materials to increase numerical apertures. In addition
to material inhomogeneities, birefringence and optical surface effects, material absorption, coatings
and index differences at boundaries will have a larger impact on image resolution as ray angles in
the imaging system continue to increase with numerical aperture. Aerial and resist imaging effects that material characteristics have on polarization, uniformity
and aberrations in the lens pupil will be studied.
Several small-field catadioptric optical designs have been developed over the last decade to meet the demanding needs from lithographers. Design solutions that use a multi-function component can provide nearly perfect wavefront correction for optical systems with broad bandwidth sources, such as free running (un-narrowed) excimer lasers operating at wavelengths below 300 nm, with limited choices of optical materials with high transmission at these wavelengths. From these catadioptric design forms, variations have been developed to accommodate changes in wavelength, increases in the numerical aperture and conversion of the imaging medium from nitrogen to ultra-high purity water and other high index fluids for immersion lithography applications. Some designs also address the need for increased working distance. This paper will discuss the use of multi-function components, the evolution of several design forms, the optical materials required, their benefits for specific applications, and the challenges they have created.
Lithographic methods of imaging in resist can be extended with the addition of immersion fluid. The higher index of refraction fluid can be used to print smaller features by increasing the numerical aperture beyond the limits of dry lithography. Alternately, an immersion optical system can achieve a larger depth of focus at the same numerical aperture as the equivalent dry lithography system.
When numerical apertures are significantly greater than 1.0, polarization effects start to impact resolution seriously. Special illumination conditions will be used to extend resolution limits. Additional factors that affect imaging in resist need to be included if we are to achieve new resolution limits using high index of refraction materials to increase numerical apertures. In addition to material inhomogeneities, birefringence and optical surface effects, material absorption, coatings and index differences at boundaries will have a larger impact on image resolution as ray angles in the imaging system continue to increase with numerical aperture.
Aerial and resist imaging effects that material characteristics have on polarization, uniformity and aberrations in the lens pupil will be studied.
Lithographic methods of imaging in resist can be extended with the addition of immersion fluid. The higher index of refraction fluid can be used to print smaller features by increasing the numerical aperture beyond the limits of dry lithography. Alternately, an immersion optical system can achieve a larger depth of focus at the same numerical aperture as the equivalent dry lithography system.
When numerical apertures are significantly greater than 1.0, polarization effects start to impact resolution seriously. Special illumination conditions will be used to extend resolution limits. Additional factors that affect imaging in resist need to be included if we are to achieve new resolution limits using high index of refraction materials to increase numerical apertures. In addition to material inhomogeneities, birefringence and optical surface effects, material absorption, coatings and index differences at boundaries will have a larger impact on image resolution as ray angles in the imaging system continue to increase with numerical aperture.
Aerial and resist imaging effects that material characteristics have on polarization, uniformity and aberrations in the lens pupil will be studied.
193 nm immersion lithography optical projection systems using conventional UV optical materials and water as the immersion fluid, with planar lens/fluid interfaces, have a practical numerical aperture (NA) limit near 1.3. The bottleneck for pushing the NA further is the refractive index of the final lens element. Higher-index immersion fluids cannot alone give much improvement, because the NA is limited by the lowest material index. In this paper we consider the possibility of using novel high-index materials in the last lens element to get around this bottleneck and to push the NA limit to at least 1.5, while containing the lens system size and complexity. We discuss three classes of high-index (n>1.8), wide-band-gap, oxide-based materials that have the potential for being fabricated with optical properties appropriate for lithography optics: group-II oxides, magnesium-aluminum-spinel-related materials, and ceramic forms of spinel. We present theoretical calculations and experimental measurements of the optical properties of these materials, including intrinsic birefringence, and we assess their prospects.
Early manufacture and use of 157nm high NA lenses has presented significant challenges including: intrinsic birefringence correction, control of optical surface contamination, and the use of relatively unproven materials, coatings, and metrology. Many of these issues were addressed during the manufacture and use of International SEMATECH’s 0.85NA lens. Most significantly, we were the first to employ 157nm phase measurement interferometry (PMI) and birefringence modeling software for lens optimization. These efforts yielded significant wavefront improvement and produced one of the best wavefront-corrected 157nm lenses to date. After applying the best practices to the manufacture of the lens, we still had to overcome the difficulties of integrating the lens into the tool platform at International SEMATECH instead of at the supplier facility. After lens integration, alignment, and field optimization were complete, conventional lithography and phase ring aberration extraction techniques were used to characterize system performance. These techniques suggested a wavefront error of approximately 0.05 waves RMS--much larger than the 0.03 waves RMS predicted by 157nm PMI. In-situ wavefront correction was planned for in the early stages of this project to mitigate risks introduced by the use of development materials and techniques and field integration of the lens. In this publication, we document the development and use of a phase ring aberration extraction method for characterizing imaging performance and a technique for correcting aberrations with the addition of an optical compensation plate. Imaging results before and after the lens correction are presented and differences between actual and predicted results are discussed.
The optical lithography community is quickly gaining confidence that immersion technology can further reduce critical dimensions based on theoretical models and high angle interference lithography techniques. The optical industry has responded by developing a new class of immersion lenses so that researchers can demonstrate practical imagery with lenses and immersion fluids with improved resolution. Corning Tropel has previously developed families of (dry) catadioptric objectives for industry researchers to help in the development phases of high resolution and inspection at wavelengths below 200 nm. They were designed for use with free running EXCIMER lasers for reduced cost and reduced sensitivity to environmental changes compared to monochromatic designs. New objectives based on the same design forms were developed for use with immersion fluids to extend the numerical aperture to values greater than 1.0 to help researchers extend the technology of small image formation. These objective designs will be described along with modeled performance and measured results.
The production of integrated circuits with ever-smaller feature sizes has historically driven the shift to shorter wavelength radiation sources and increases in numerical aperture (the product of the sine of the imaging cone angle and the refractive index of the media at the image plane). When a next-generation design rule demanded a numerical aperture larger than was technically feasible, a move to a shorter wavelength was the only available solution. Immersion imaging is a detour along the path of shorter wavelengths. Here, the resolution improvement is achieved by exceeding the numerical aperture barrier of 1.0 (for optical systems that form an image in air) by placing a liquid between the final element and the image plane. This liquid layer presents numerous challenges to the optical metrologist. Results of testing a 193nm small-field immersion objective will be reported. The immersion fluid for this objective is de-ionized water. The characterization of the optical and physical properties of the water layer and the effect of those properties on the metrology of the objective will be discussed.
Lithographers have used the Newtonian design form in small field micro-steppers for resist development for nearly a decade, spanning two wavelength generations and several increases in numerical aperture. New and useful design solutions continue to evolve from this design form for increasing the numerical aperture beyond 0.85 (dry). Introducing immersion fluids to increase the numerical aperture further has altered the aberration contributions, allowing for numerical apertures to increase beyond 1.2 (wet) for the same reduction ratio and field sizes without increasing element blank sizes. Practical solutions will be discussed that will allow continued research as resolution limits are further extended. Several dry and wet design solutions at both 193 and 157 nm wavelengths will be reviewed and their performance compared.
Newtonian design forms have been developed to explore high numerical aperture imaging systems at the wavelength of 157 nm with elements made of CaF2 crystal. First-generation systems working at 0.60 numerical aperature (NA) are currently printing features smaller than 130 nm for resist-process development. Second-generation design forms, working with variable numerical apertures above 0.75 NA, will push feature sizes significantly below 100 nm. Several aspects of second-generation designs have been improved to accommodate the need for characterizing and enhancing imaging performance. Closed-loop methods of optimization to reduce aberrations have been developed to characterize and control the effects of crystal-related birefringence on imagery. In addition these systems are learning vehicles to enhance knowledge of aberration-image performance dependence at high numerical apertures.
Aberrations, aberrations, here there everywhere but how do we collect useful data that can be incorporated into our simulators? Over the past year there have no less than 18 papers published in the literature discussing how to measure aberrations to answering the question if Zernikes are really enough. The ability to accurately measure a Zernike coefficient in a timely cost effective manner can be priceless to device manufacturers. Exposure tool and lens manufacturers are reluctant to provide this information for a host of reasons, however, device manufacturers can use this data to better utilize each tool depending on the level and the type of semiconductors they produce. Dirksen et al. first discussed the ring test as an effective method of determining lens aberrations in a step and repeat system, later in a scanning system. The method is based on two elements; the linear response to the ring test to aberrations and the use of multiple imaging conditions. The authors have been working to further enhance the capability on the test on the first small field 157 nm exposure system at International SEMATECH. This data was generated and analyzed through previously discussed methods for Z5 through Z25 and correlated back to PMI data. Since no 157nm interferemetric systems exist the lens system PMI data was collected at 248nm. Correlation studies have isolated the possible existence of birefringence in the lens systems via the 3-foil aberration which was not seen at 248nm. Imaging experiments have been conducted for various geometry's and structures for critical dimensions ranging from 0.13micrometers down to 0.10micrometers with binary and 0.07micrometers with alternating phase shift mask. The authors will review the results of these experiments and the correlation to imaging data and PMI data.
Significant improvement in 157nm optical components lifetime is required for successful implementation of pilot and production scale 157nm lithography. To date, most of the 157nm optics lifetime data has been collected in controlled laboratory conditions by introducing predetermined concentrations of contaminants and monitoring degradation in terms of transmission loss. This publication compliments prior work by documenting field experience with the 157nm Exitech Microstepper currently in operation at International SEMATECH. Failure mechanisms of various optical components are presented and molecular contamination levels in purge gas, tool enclosure, and clean room are documented. Finally the impacts of contaminant deposition and degradation of components on imaging performance is discussed.
Newtonian design forms have been developed to explore higher numerical aperture imaging systems at a wavelength of 157 nm with elements made of CaF2 crystal. First-generation systems working at 0.60 NA are currently printing features smaller than 130 nm for resist-process-development. Second-generation design forms, working with variable numerical apertures above 0.75 NA, will push feature sizes significantly below 100 nm. Several aspects of second-generation designs have been improved to accommodate the need for characterizing and enhancing imaging performance. Closed-loop methods of optimization to reduce aberrations have been developed to characterize and control the effects of crystal-related birefringence on imagery. In addition these systems are learning vehicles to enhance knowledge of aberration-image performance dependence at high numerical apertures.
In this paper we will examine the effect of obscuration upon the various features we desired to image with a 157 nm microstepper utilizing a catadioptric lens. We will show the effect the obscuration has upon imaging when using not only conventional illumination and binary masks, but also when using a range of enhancement techniques such as off-axis illumination and phase-shifting masks. We will show how use of a large obscuration, while enhancing the signals for the densest features, actually degrades the signal for more isolated features. The level of obscuration must also take into account cross duty-ratio effects, i.e. the distribution of diffraction energy, for phase shifted features of various sizes. In this situation where a small sigma would be used a large level of obscuration can significantly increase biases. The choice of obscuration can have a major effect upon the imaging capabilities of a tool. In future, when the use of catadioptric lenses may be more widespread (for example this may happen at 157 nm) it may be desirable to have the option to vary this obscuration dependant upon the pattern being imaged.
Microlithographic objectives have been developed for deep ultraviolet and vacuum ultraviolet wavelengths used for printing and inspection applications related to microlithographic processes. Refractive and catadioptric design solutions using fused silica, calcium fluoride and other crystals are discussed. Several reflective and catadioptric design forms having central obscurations will be compared to refractive forms. Design complexity, performance and limitations are compared.
Lithographic lens systems are continually being designed to work at shorter wavelengths and higher numerical apertures. The prospect of 157 nm F2 excimer-based lithography presents many demanding new challenges to lithographic lens manufacturers. Lens fabricators must re-orient themselves to handling and finishing more delicate optical materials such as calcium fluoride to unprecedented surface requirements. Thin film engineers are pressed to deliver a multitude of new optical coatings, but with a dramatically limited selection of raw materials. And optical test engineers are presented with new testing challenges: among them is at-wavelength interferometric testing of lithographic objectives using an F2 excimer laser source. Requirements for constructing such an interferometer dictate a design containing several nitrogen-purged beam paths and a camera capable of detecting 157 nm radiation. These contribute to an interferometer that is cumbersome and expensive when applied to production testing of lithographic lens assemblies. In addition, complications emerge in the interferometer design due to the relatively poor coherence in the 157 nm F2 excimer source. Fortunately, off-wavelength sources (usually at a 'user-friendly' longer wavelength) can be applied to transmitted wavefront testing of lithographic objectives designed for shorter wavelengths, while still providing nearly perfect and predictable at-wavelength imagery. This testing approach requires additional null optics to correct for off-wavelength spherochromatism effects. We have successfully used off-wavelength 248 nm interferometer testing to characterize 193 nm ArF lens systems, and this approach has been extended to the 157 nm regime by incorporating a well-characterized null corrector. We explain methods to perform null corrector characterization: We describe a technique to separate the non-rotationally symmetric errors introduced by a multi-element null corrector from the errors in the lithographic lens under test. We also discuss methods to characterize the rotationally symmetric errors introduced by this null corrector. In addition, we describe a method to cascade the error separation algorithm such that additional non-rotationally symmetric errors are also isolated. Test results are included and discussed.
Among several possible failure modes in a Fiber Bragg Grating (FBG) device, fracture of the optical fiber is one of great importance. Reliability of fiber in such a device has to be ascertained and assured. A technique to evaluate the fiber strength in this device has been developed, and the extent of degradation due to processing and handling has been established. The impact of mechanical failures in other parts of the device on fiber failure is also addressed and evaluated. The failure mechanisms and its implications on fiber reliability are discussed. A proof stress level has been determined and implemented in the fabrication to assure mechanical reliability of the fiber against time. Based on the fiber strength distribution, proof stress level used, and the applied stress, a FIT rate is calculated using power law crack growth model for silica fibers. This study estimates an average FIT of 0.06 at ambient room temperature over a 25 year life for fiber failure in FBG devices fabricated by Corning Inc.
Described here is an approach to aberration tolerancing utilizing aerial image parameterization based on photoresist capability. A minimum aerial image metric is determined from either a characterized resist process or desirable resist attributes and includes definition of resist exposure, diffusion, and development properties. Minimum aerial image requirements can then be correlated to resist performance to allow for the evaluation of various feature sizes and types. This allows, for example, the prediction of lens performance through focus, across the field, and in the presence of small levels of internal flare. Results can then be compared with more conventional optical metrics such as Strehl ratio, partial coherence contrast, or image threshold CD. Results are presented for three commercial small field catadioptric 193 nm lithographic lenses. Aberration levels for each lens at several field positions and at several wavelengths has been described using 37. Zernike polynomial coefficients. Minimum aerial image requirements have been correlated to resist performance to allow the evaluation of various feature types, a unique situation when no mature 193 nm resist process existed. Additionally, the impact of modified illumination on aberrations is presented.
To meet the exacting demands of sub-half micron lithography, rigorous analysis must be a part of the entire optical design process. Several new modeling techniques have been developed to aid in determining the lithographic performance of an optical design. An aerial image modeling program has been implemented for the examination of CD variation and isolated/grouped line bias. Additional models have been developed to examine lens heating effects, stray light, and ghost images. A tolerancing technique has been established which provides maximum manufacturability while allowing minimal performance degradation. This design, analysis, and tolerancing process has yielded the first 31 mm field, 0.53 NA, 248 nm lithographic objective capable of producing 0.35 micrometers features in a manufacturing environment. The objective, as built, has a maximum astigmatism of 0.20 micrometers and a total focal plane deviation of 0.17 micrometers . A 1.3 micrometers common focus corridor in 1.0 micrometers thick APEX-E has been demonstrated for 0.35 micrometers features over the entire field. A grouped/isolated CD bias of 9 nm has been measured. This paper presents the design and analysis procedures along with the experimental results for this objective.
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