The beamforming technique has been successfully used for real-time ultrasound imaging and applications. Traditionally, the most commercially available ultrasound systems still implement standard Delay-and-Sum (DAS) beamforming for B-mode imaging. This technique performs the time delay and coherent summation of ultrasonic radiofrequency (RF) echoes received by individual transducer elements to align the backscattered signals at the focal point. However, the transducer aperture size and system operating frequency limit the image resolution and contrast achievable with DAS. For this reason, new methods based on adaptive beamforming algorithms, such as Minimum Variance (MV), have been studied to improve the quality of the signal received by the transducer and reduce the effects of noise and interference. This work compares a B-mode ultrasound image generated by the DAS technique and the MV combined with DAS beamforming using Field II acoustic field simulation software. A simulated phantom with 18 targets, separated into three groups, and surrounded by a uniform background, was created. For qualitative analysis, two-dimensional and three-dimensional images simulated using DAS and MV beamformers are presented. The quantitative analyses were employed to compare the performance of the MV over the DAS beamforming using axial and lateral full width at half maximum (FWHM) and geometric distortion ratio (GDR) measurements of the central target group. According to those metrics, no significant changes were observed regarding the axial FWHM. However, the MV method considerably reduced the lateral FWHM by more than 40%, with a minimum GDR of 37%.
KEYWORDS: Digital signal processing, Field programmable gate arrays, Data modeling, Apodization, Phased arrays, Signal processing, Model-based design, Ultrasonography, Data conversion, Finite impulse response filters
In this paper we present a model-based Field Programmable Gate Array (FPGA) design flow for ultrasound imaging using the delay-and-sum (DAS) beamforming technique. The beamformer model is based on DSP Builder toolbox in the Matlab/Simulink environment, used for fast prototype design and automatic hardware description language code generation for Intel FPGAs. The design was synthesized for an Intel Stratix IV FPGA and implemented on a Terasic DE4- 230 board, including the following digital signal processing steps: digital filtering, focusing delay adjustment, apodization, coherent summation, envelope detection and logarithmic compression. To evaluate our model, we used raw radiofrequency data from a phantom acquired using a 128-element convex transducer (2-5 MHz) with an active aperture of 8 elements. A Nios II processor was integrated into the FPGA to send and receive data from the model and transmit them to the host computer for off-line scan conversion and B-mode image generation. The results show that the proposed strategy is efficient for rapid prototyping of FPGA devices in ultrasound imaging applications. The overall FPGA resources utilization was less than 15%, indicating that other digital signal processing algorithms, such as interpolation, decimation, and scan conversion, can be implemented using this design methodology in both medical and non-destructive imaging applications.
Open ultrasound platforms foster the development of novel image processing techniques due to its flexibility in terms of both software and hardware updates. There is a growing need for rapid prototyping and modelling platforms can be used to develop high-level applications, such as MATLAB/Simulink. Although there are several model-based methods for ultrasound imaging described in the literature, most of them focus on specific digital signal processing stages, and there is little assessment of the simulation environment of Model Composer and System Generator for Xilinx Field-programmable Gate Arrays (FPGA). The purpose of this article is to implement the steps of an ultrasound reception beamforming using the delay and sum technique for B-mode imaging, and then comparing the results between a reference MATLAB script and the results from Xilinx based-model implemented in Simulink environment. The simulation uses 12-bit ultrasound data sampled at 40 MHz from a phantom acquired with a 128-element transducer with an aperture of 8 elements. The design was synthesized for a Xilinx Zynq 7000 FPGA. The qualitative results of the generated B-mode imagens are in excellent agreement, with a CNR error of 0.01, and a processed envelope with NRMSE of 0.085%. In conclusion, the use of tools such as Model Composer and system generator proved to be adequate for rapid prototyping and yields very accurate results for FPGA simulations when compared to MATLAB calculations.
The objective of this research is to correlate the brown fat activity (BAT) with the metabolic activity of thyroid in patients with fibromyalgia syndrome (FS). For the development of the research, it was select a database containing 132 patients of a thermography clinic, male and female, with age over 18 years old; where the images selected were anteroposterior orthostasis top and anteroposterior in cervical extension. In the program Flir Report, it was possible to demarcate the region of the left and right interscapular and thyroid of each patient by getting the respective temperatures, in addition to view the hyper-radiation (“signal of mantle”) in the interscapular. Temperature was organized in table format, and statistical analysis was performed in the program Microcal Origin 6.0. As conclusion, it was found that the greater the metabolic activity of thyroid in patients with fibromyalgia, the greater will be the metabolic rate of brown fat (BAT).
Safety, performance, economy and durability are essential items to qualify materials for the manufacturing of structures used in different areas. Generally, the materials used for this purpose are formed by composites and sometimes they can present failure during the manufacturing process. Such failures can also occur during use due to fatigue and wear, causing damage often difficult to be visually detected. In these cases, the use of non destructive testing (NDT) has proven to be a good choice for assessing the materials quality. The objective of this work was the electromechanical impedance evaluation of massive aluminum structures using ultrasonic transducers to detect discontinuities in the material. The tests have been done using an impedance analyzer (Agilent 4294A), an ultrasound transducer (1.6 MHz of central frequency), two types of PZT ceramics (0.267 mm and 1 mm thickness) and four aluminum samples (250 x 50 x 50 mm) with the transducer placed at three different regions. One sample was kept intact (reference) and the others were drilled in three positions with different sizes of holes (5 mm. 8 mm and 11 mm). The electromechanical impedance was recorded for each sample. The root mean square deviation index (RMSD) between the impedance magnitude of the reference and damaged samples was calculated and it was observed an increase in the RMSD due to the increase of the diameter of the holes (failures) in the samples completely drilled. The results show that the proposed methodology is suitable for monitoring the integrity of aluminum samples. The technique may be evaluated in characterizing other materials to be used in the construction of prostheses and orthoses.
The Doppler velocimeter developed allows determining the angle between the ultrasonic beam and the velocity vector of the flow, and utilizes this angle to calculate the blood flow in a vessel. Four piezoelectric transducers constitute the Doppler velocimeter. Three of these transducers are positioned to form an equilateral triangle (base of a pyramid). When these transducers move simultaneously, backward or forward from the initial position, the emitted ultrasonic beams focalize on a position (peak of the pyramid) closer or farther from the transducers faces, according to the depth of the vessel where we intend to measure de flow. The angle between the transducers allows adjusting the height of this pyramid and the position of the focus (where the three beams meet). A forth transducer is used to determine the diameter of the vessel and monitor the position of the Doppler velocimeter relative to the vessel. The results showed that with this technique it is possible to accomplish measurement of blood flow and to reduce Doppler measurements subjectivity.
In this work we have investigated the influence of the backing layer composition and the matching layer thickness in the performance of ultrasound transducers constructed with piezoelectric ceramic disks. We have constructed transducers with backing layers of different compositions, using mixtures of epoxy with alumina powder and/or Tungsten powder and with λ/4 or 3λ/4 thickness epoxy matching layers. The evaluation tests were performed in pulse-echo mode, with a flat target, and in transmission/reception mode, with a calibrated PVDF hydrophone. The acoustical field emitted by each transducer was mapped in order to measure the on-axis and transverse field profiles, the aperture size and the beam spreading. The bandwidths of the transducers were determined in pulse-echo mode. Comparing the evaluation tests results of two transducers constructed with the same backing layer, the one constructed with λ/4 thickness epoxy matching layer showed better performance. The results showed that the transducers constructed with epoxy, alumina and Tungsten powders backing layers have larger bandwidth. The larger depth of field was measured for transducers constructed with epoxy and Tungsten powder backing layers. These transducers and those constructed with epoxy, Tungsten and alumina powders backing layers showed the larger field intensities in the measured transverse profiles.
The objective of this work was to optimize the process of apodization of piezoelectric ceramic discs, looking for the better relationship between oil bath temperature and time of electrical field application. The apodization was performed to reduce the diffraction in the acoustic field generated by ultrasonic transducers. We used 12.7mm diameter and 1mm thickness PZT-5A discs. The apodization field (2kV/mm thickness) has been shaped by a 5mm radius spherical electrode throughout the apodization processes we have used. The apodized ceramic discs which showed electromechanical coupling coefficient value, for the thickness mode of vibration, equal or larger than 0.37, were considered well apodized. We used initial oil bath temperatures from 120°C to 250°C and the electric field was applied for periods of at least 2 minutes to up to 4 hours. The results showed that if the poling electric field was applied to the piezoelectric ceramic even before the oil was heated, we obtained larger piezoelectric coupling coefficients; in higher temperatures (250°C) this was not necessary. We concluded that using higher temperatures (250°C) it was possible to reduce the apodization process, with satisfactory results, from 4-5 hours to 2 minutes. Ultrasound transducers were built with apodized ceramics and their acoustic fields showed larger depth of field relative to non apodized ones.
The Doppler velocimeter developed allows to determine the angle between the ultrasonic beam and the velocity vector of the flow, and to calculate the precise blood flow in a vessel. Four piezoelectric transducers constitute the Doppler velocimeter. Three of these transducers are positioned to form an equilateral triangle (base of a pyramid). When these transducers move simultaneously, backward or forward from the initial position, the emitted ultrasonic beams focalize on a position (peak of the pyramid) closer or farther from the transducers faces, according to the depth of the vessel where we intend to measure de flow. The angle between the transducers allows adjusting the height of this pyramid and the position of the focus (where the three beams meet). A forth transducer is used to determine the diameter of the vessel and monitor the position of the Doppler velocimeter relative to the vessel. Simulation results showed that with this technique is possible to accomplish precise measurement of blood flow.
A method for measuring the directivity function of transient fields with a new type of hydrophone that can be located at any convenient distance from the transducer is presented. Fields from planar and focused transducers, for both continuous wave and pulsed excitation, are measured via the new method, and the results compared against conventional measurements as well as against theoretical predictions. The directivity function for pulsed fields is best expressed as a complex directivity spectrum, and images of this fundamental transducer field characteristic are shown to encode a number of unexpected features. The definition and measurement of the directivity function, is not dependent on continuous wave or far-field conditions, and laboratory implementation of the theory is via a new type of hydrophone, with some unusual properties. It is concluded that precise and unambiguous measurement of transducer directivity patterns are straight forward to perform provided a relatively simple, but novel, technique is used. Images of the informative directivity spectrum may be obtained with ease.
In cardiac surgeries it is frequently necessary to carry out interventions in internal heart structures, and where the blood circulation and oxygenation are made by artificial ways, out of the patient's body, in a procedure known as extracorporeal circulation (EC). During this procedure, one of the most important parameters, and that demands constant monitoring, is the blood flow. In this work, an ultrasonic pulsed Doppler blood flowmeter, to be used in an extracorporeal circulation system, was developed. It was used a 2 MHz ultrasonic transducer, measuring flows from 0 to 5 liters/min, coupled externally to the EC arterial line destined to adults perfusion (diameter of 9.53 mm). The experimental results using the developed flowmeter indicated a maximum deviation of 3.5% of full scale, while the blood flow estimator based in the rotation speed of the peristaltic pump presented deviations greater than 20% of full scale. This ultrasonic flowmeter supplies the results in a continuous and trustworthy way, and it does not present the limitations found in those flowmeters based in other transduction methods. Moreover, due to the fact of not being in contact with the blood, it is not disposable and it does not need sterilization, reducing operational costs and facilitating its use.
KEYWORDS: Ultrasonography, Transducers, Signal attenuation, Bone, Ultrasonics, Wave propagation, Transmitters, Dual energy x-ray absorptiometry, Minerals, Control systems
We have developed an equipment using ultrasound transducers to help in the diagnosis of osteoporosis. The equipment consists of an X-Y axes displacement system controlled by a microcomputer and uses two ultrasound transducers in opposite sides to inspect the calcaneus region of the patient. We have used two pairs of transducers with 500 kHz and 1 MHz central frequencies. Each pair of transducers was fixed in the X-Y displacement system submerged in a small water tank with a support for the foot of the patient. The transmitter was excited with pulses of 400 - 600 kHz or 800 - 1200 kHz and the ultrasound waves propagating through the bone in the calcaneus region are received by the opposite transducer, amplified and acquired in a digital oscilloscope. The data are transferred to the microcomputer and the ultrasound attenuation and the ultrasound transmission velocity are determined. The system was tested in patients, selected from a group that had already been diagnosed using a DEXA equipment. The results showed that there is a decrease in the ultrasound transmission velocity and the ultrasound attenuation in osteoporotic patients when compared to healthy patients of the same sex and age group. The conclusion is that ultrasound attenuation and the transmission velocity in the calcaneus region may be used as parameters in the evaluation of osteoporosis using our new system.
The diffraction in the acoustic field of an ultrasound transducer can be modeled as the result of the interference of edge and plane waves generated from the periphery and the center of the piezoelectric element, respectively. Our objective in developing ultrasound transducers with apodized piezoelectric ceramic discs was to generate acoustical fields with reduced edge waves interference. Transducers were built with apodized ceramic discs (polarized more intensively in the central region than in the edges) and their mapped acoustic fields showed a distinct pattern when compared to those of conventional transducers. A polynomial equation describing the nonlinear poling field intensity, was used with the Rayleigh equation to simulate the nonuniform vibration amplitude distribution generated by the apodized transducers. Simulated acoustic fields were compared to experimental field mappings. The results of simulations and experimental tests showed reduction in the lateral spreading of acoustic fields produced by apodized transducers, compared to those produced by conventional transducers. The reduced presence of the lateral lobes in the apodized acoustic field is due to the minimized vibration of the disc periphery. The numerical and experimental results were in good agreement and showed that it was possible to reduce acoustic field diffraction through nonlinear polarization of the piezoelectric element.
KEYWORDS: Transducers, Ceramics, Acoustics, Electrodes, Ultrasonography, Apodization, Spherical lenses, Diffraction, Finite element methods, Near field
Our objective in apodizing piezoelectric ceramic discs was to produce discs that vibrate more intensively in the central region than in the region near the edge in order to generate acoustic fields with minimum diffraction effects. A spherical poling electrode was used to format the electrical field across the ceramic disc in order to achieve a polarization stronger in the central region and weaker in the edges. The electrode radius was previously determined by simulation with finite element method. The frequency spectrum of the apodized ceramic discs showed that the resonance and the anti-resonance frequencies shifted to larger values. Ultrasound transducers were constructed with the apodized ceramics and with normal commercial ceramics in order to compare their acoustic fields. The apodized transducers showed an average value of the electromechanical coefficient of 0.576 while for the non-apodized transducers this value was 0.597. Their outputs were measured in a water tank, with a point hydrophone, and showed that the time duration of the pulses generated by the apodized transducers were shorter than the ones generated by the conventional transducers, even though the acoustic pressure output intensities were similar. We have also mapped their apodized and non-apodized transducers. The far field of the apodized transducers showed a smoother decay and extended to larger distances from their face, compared to that of the non- apodized transducers.
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