Photoacoustic (PA) imaging has been shown to provide detailed 3-D images of genetically expressed reporters, such as fluorescent proteins and tyrosinase-induced melanin. Their unambiguous detection in vivo is a vital prerequisite for molecular imaging of biological processes at a cellular and molecular level. This typically requires multiwavelength imaging and spectral unmixing techniques, which can be computationally expensive. In addition, fluorescent proteins often exhibit fluence-dependent ground state depopulation and photobleaching which can adversely affect the specificity of unmixing methods. To overcome these problems, a phytochrome-based reporter protein and a dual-wavelength excitation method have been developed to obtain reporter-specific PA contrast. Phytochromes are non-fluorescent proteins that exhibit two isomeric states with different absorption spectra. Using dual-wavelength excitation pulses in the red and near-infrared wavelength region, these states can be switched, resulting in a modulation of the total absorption coefficient, and hence the PA signal amplitude. Since this is not observed in endogenous chromophores, signals acquired using simultaneous pulses can be subtracted from the sum of signals obtained from separate pulses to provide a reporterspecific contrast mechanism and elimination of the tissue background. PA signals measured in protein solutions using separate and simultaneous excitation pulses at 670 nm and 755 nm (< 6 mJ cm-2) showed a difference in amplitude of a factor of five. Photobleaching was not observed. To demonstrate suitability for in vivo applications, mammalian cells were transduced virally to express phytochrome, and imaged in tissue phantoms and in mice in an initial preclinical study. The results show that this method has the potential to enable deep-tissue PA reporter gene imaging with high specificity.
In fluorophores, such as exogenous dyes and genetically expressed proteins, the excited state lifetime can be modulated using pump-probe excitation at wavelengths corresponding to the absorption and fluorescence spectra. Simultaneous pump-probe pulses induce stimulated emission (SE) which, in turn, modulates the thermalized energy, and hence the photoacoustic (PA) signal amplitude. For time-delayed pulses, by contrast, SE is suppressed. Since this is not observed in endogenous chromophores, the location of the fluorophore can be determined by subtracting images acquired using simultaneous and time-delayed pump-probe excitation. This simple experimental approach exploits a fluorophorespecific contrast mechanism, and has the potential to enable deep-tissue molecular imaging at fluences below the MPE. In this study, some of the challenges to its in vivo implementation are addressed. First, the PA signal amplitude generated in fluorophores in vivo is often much smaller than that in blood. Second, tissue motion can give rise to artifacts that correspond to endogenous chromophores in the difference image. This would not allow the unambiguous detection of fluorophores. A method to suppress motion artifacts based on fast switching between simultaneous and time-delayed pump-probe excitation was developed. This enables the acquisition of PA signals using the two excitation modes with minimal time delay (20 ms), thus minimizing the effects of tissue motion. The feasibility of this method is demonstrated by visualizing a fluorophore (Atto680) in tissue phantoms, which were moved during the image acquisition to mimic tissue motion.
Fluorophores, such as exogenous dyes and genetically expressed proteins, exhibit radiative relaxation with long excited state lifetimes. This can be exploited for PA detection based on dual wavelength excitation using pump and probe wavelengths that coincide with the absorption and emission spectra, respectively. While the pump pulse raises the fluorophore to a long-lived excited state, simultaneous illumination with the probe pulse reduces the excited state lifetime due to stimulated emission (SE).This leads to a change in thermalized energy, and hence PA signal amplitude, compared to single wavelength illumination. By introducing a time delay between pump and probe pulses, the change in PA amplitude can be modulated. Since the effect is not observed in endogenous chromophores, it provides a contrast mechanism for the detection of fluorophores via PA difference imaging. In this study, a theoretical model of the PA signal generation in fluorophores was developed and experimentally validated. The model is based on a system of coupled rate equations, which describe the spatial and temporal changes in the population of the molecular energy levels of a fluorophore as a function of pump-probe energy and concentration. This allows the prediction of the thermalized energy distribution, and hence the time-resolved PA signal amplitude. The model was validated by comparing its predictions to PA signals measured in solutions of rhodamine 6G, a well-known laser dye, and Atto680, a NIR fluorophore.
KEYWORDS: Photoacoustic spectroscopy, Absorption, Tissues, Photons, Molecules, Photoacoustic imaging, 3D image processing, Signal generators, Fluorescent markers, In vivo imaging
Photoacoustic imaging has been used to determine the spatial distribution of fluorophores, such as exogenous dyes and genetically expressed proteins, from images acquired in phantoms and in vivo. Most methods involve the acquisition of multiwavelength images and rely on differences in the absorption spectra of the tissue chromophores to estimate the spatial distribution and abundance of the latter using spectral decomposition techniques, such as model based inversion schemes. However, the inversion of 3-D images can be computationally expensive. Experimental approaches to localising contrast agents may therefore be useful, especially if quantification is not essential. This work aims to develop a method for determining the spatial distribution of a near-infrared fluorescent cell marker from images acquired using dual wavelength excitation. The excitation wavelengths coincided with the absorption and emission spectrum of the fluorophore. The contrast mechanism relies on reducing the excited state lifetime of the fluorophore by inducing stimulated emission. This changes the amount of energy thermalized by the fluorophore, and hence the photoacoustic signal amplitude. Since this is not observed in endogenous chromophores, the background may be removed by subtracting two images acquired with and without pulse delay between the pump and probe pulses. To characterise the fluorophore, the signal amplitude is measured in a cuvette as a function of pulse delay, concentration, and fluence. The spatial distribution of the fluorophore is determined from images acquired in realistic tissue phantoms. This method may be suitable for in vivo applications, such as imaging of exogenous or genetically expressed fluorescent cell markers.
The capability to image stem cells in vivo in small animal models over extended periods of time is important to furthering our understanding of the processes involved in tissue regeneration. Photoacoustic imaging is suited to this application as it can provide high resolution (tens of microns) absorption-based images of superficial tissues (cm depths). However, stem cells are rare, highly migratory, and can divide into more specialised cells. Genetic labelling strategies are therefore advantageous for their visualisation. In this study, methods for the transfection and viral transduction of mesenchymal stem cells with reporter genes for the co-expression of tyrosinase and a fluorescent protein (mCherry). Initial photoacoustic imaging experiments of tyrosinase expressing cells in small animal models of tissue regeneration were also conducted. Lentiviral transduction methods were shown to result in stable expression of tyrosinase and mCherry in mesenchymal stem cells. The results suggest that photoacoustic imaging using reporter genes is suitable for the study of stem cell driven tissue regeneration in small animals.
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