Existing micro-CT systems can visualize the trabecular bone microstructure; however, its application is limited because of the small scan field of view and the long scan time for clinical use. We developed a high-resolution CT for human extremities (HRCTe) with clinical feasibility, which can achieve a spatial resolution of ~100μm and a short acquisition time of 6.5 seconds. A complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor x-ray detector with a 99μm pixel pitch and a compact x-ray tube with a focal spot size of 0.8mm were installed in the HRCTe. In order to maximize the performance of the x-ray tube and the detector, we introduced a low-magnification geometry. This resulted in an effective focal spot size of 0.14mm, ensuring the resolution performance of the pixel pitch at the iso-center of 81μm. The scan z-directional coverage was 50mm. For the technical assessment, modulation transfer function (MTF) and noise power spectrum (NPS) were measured using a wire phantom and a water phantom, respectively. A squared system performance function (SPF2) was calculated as MTF2/NPS. These results were compared with those measured using a high-resolution mode of a whole-body CT with a 0.25mm detector (WCT) and a dental CT (DCT). The 5%MTF of the HRCT, WCT, and DCT were approximately 3.8, 1.9, and 1.5mm-1. The SPF2 at 2.0mm-1 of the developed CT was 260% higher than that of WCT. The trabecular bones in an anthropomorphic foot phantom were visualized much clearer with HRCTe than with both WCT and DCT.
Purpose: To assess the physical performance of deep learning image reconstruction (DLIR) compared with those of filtered back projection (FBP) and iterative reconstruction (IR) and to estimate the dose reduction potential of the technique.
Approach: A cylindrical water bath phantom with a diameter of 300 mm including two rods composed of acrylic and soft tissue-equivalent material was scanned using a clinical computed tomography (CT) scanner at four dose levels (CT dose index of 20, 15, 10, and 5 mGy). Phantom images were reconstructed using FBP, DLIR, and IR. The in-plane and z axis task transfer functions (TTFs) and in-plane noise power spectrum (NPS) were measured. The dose reduction potential was estimated by evaluating the system performance function calculated from TTF and NPS. The visibilities of a bar pattern phantom placed in the same water bath phantom were compared.
Results: The use of DLIR resulted in a notable decrease in noise magnitude. The shift in peak NPS frequency was reduced compared with IR. Preservation of in-plane TTF was superior using DLIR than using IR. The estimated dose reduction potentials of DLIR and IR were 39% to 54% and 19% to 29%, respectively. However, the z axis resolution was decreased with DLIR by 6% to 21% compared with FBP. The bar pattern visibilities were approximately consistent with the TTF results in both planes.
Conclusions: The in-plane edge-preserving noise reduction performance of DLIR is superior to that of IR. Moreover, DLIR enables approximately half-dose acquisitions with no deterioration in noise texture in cases that permit some z axis resolution reduction.
Arm artifact, which is type of streak artifact frequently observed in computed tomography (CT) images of polytrauma patients at the arms-down positioning, are known to degrade the image quality. The existing streak artifact reduction algorithms are not effective for arm artifact, as they have not been designed for this purpose. The effects of the latest iterative reconstruction techniques (IRs), which are effective for noise and streak artifact reductions, have not been evaluated for the arm-artifact reduction. In this study, we developed a novel reconstruction algorithm for arm-artifact reduction using an arm-induced noise filtering of the projection data. A phantom resembling a standard adult abdomen with two arms was scanned using a 16-row CT scanner, and then the projection data was downloaded. The proposed algorithm consisted of an arm recognition step after the conventional reconstruction and arm-induced noise filtering (frequency split and attenuation-dependent filtering) of the projection data. The artifact reduction capabilities and image blurring as a side effect of the filtering were compared with those of the latest three IRs (IR1, IR2, and IR3). The proposed algorithm and IR1 significantly reduced the artifacts by 89.4% and 83.5%, respectively. The other two IRs were not effective in terms of arm-artifact reduction. In contrast to IR1 that yielded an apparent image blurring combined with a different noise texture, the proposed algorithm mostly suppressed the image blurring. The proposed algorithm, designed for an arm-artifact reduction, was effective and it is expected to improve the image quality of abdominal CT examinations at the arms-down positioning.
The aim of this study was to propose a calibration method for small dosimeters to measure absorbed doses during dual- source dual-energy computed tomography (DECT) and to compare the axial dose distribution, eye lens dose, and image noise level between DE and standard, single-energy (SE) head CT angiography. Three DE (100/Sn140 kVp 80/Sn140 kVp, and 140/80 kVp) and one SE (120 kVp) acquisitions were performed using a second-generation dual-source CT device and a female head phantom, with an equivalent volumetric CT dose index. The axial absorbed dose distribution at the orbital level and the absorbed doses for the eye lens were measured using radiophotoluminescent glass dosimeters. CT attenuation numbers were obtained in the DE composite images and the SE images of the phantom at the orbital level. The doses absorbed at the orbital level and in the eye lens were lower and standard deviations for the CT attenuation numbers were slightly higher in the DE acquisitions than those in the SE acquisition. The anterior surface dose was especially higher in the SE acquisition than that in the DE acquisitions. Thus, DE head CT angiography can be performed with a radiation dose lower than that required for a standard SE head CT angiography, with a slight increase in the image noise level. The 100/Sn140 kVp acquisition revealed the most balanced axial dose distribution. In addition, our proposed method was effective for calibrating small dosimeters to measure absorbed doses in DECT.
Reduction of exposure dose and improvement in image quality can be expected to result from advances in the
performance of imaging detectors. We propose a computerized method for determining optimized imaging conditions by
use of simulated images. This study was performed to develop a prototype system for image noise and to ensure
consistency between the resulting images and actual images. An RQA5 X-ray spectrum was used for determination of
input-output characteristics of a flat-panel detector (FPD). The number of incident quantum to the detector per pixel
(counts/pixel) was calculated according to the pixel size of the detector and the quantum number in RQA5 determined in
IEC6220-1. The relationship among tube current-time product (mAs), exposure dose (C/kg) at the detector surface, the
number of incident quanta (counts/pixel), and pixel values measured on the images was addressed, and a conversion
function was then created. The images obtained by the FPD was converted into a map of incident quantum numbers and
input into random-value generator to simulate image noise. In addition, graphic user interface was developed to observe
images with changing image noise and exposure dose levels, which have trade-off relationship. Simulation images
provided at different noise levels were compared with actual images obtained by the FPD system. The results indicated
that image noise was simulated properly both in objective and subjective evaluation. The present system could allow us
to determine necessary dose from image quality and also to estimate image quality from any exposure dose.
Sub-second multi-detector computed tomography systems (MDCTs) offer great potentials for improving cardiac
imaging. However, since the temporal resolution of such CT systems is not sufficient, blurring and artifacts produced by
fast cardiac motion are still problematic. The purposes of this study were to investigate the accurate method for
measurement of temporal resolution (TR) of the cardiac CT and required TR for obtaining better CT coronary
angiography (CTCA). We employed a dual source CT system (Somatom Definition, Siemens), which has various
temporal resolution modes (83, 125, and 165 msec) for
electro-cardiogram (ECG)-gated scanning. The temporal
sensitivity profiles (TSPs) were measured by a new method using temporal impulse generated by metal ball (impulse
method). The CTCA images of 200 patients with heart rates (HRs) ranging from 36 to 117 beat per minute (bpm) were
visually evaluated using a 4-point scale. The 165-msec TR mode, which is mostly available on recent MDCTs, showed a
sufficient image quality only at low HR (≤ 60 bpm) for all 3 arteries. The image quality of 125-msec TR mode was
acceptable at low to intermediate HRs (< 80 bpm) for LADs and LCXs, and insufficient for the RCAs in cases with HR
more than 71 bpm. The 83-msec TR mode demonstrated excellent image quality except for cases with very quick motion
of the RCAs at a high HR (>80 bpm).
In soft-copy diagnosis, medical images with a large number of matrices often need displaying of reduced images by subsampling
processing. We analyzed overall image characteristics on a liquid crystal display (LCD) depending on the
display condition. Specifically, we measured overall Wiener spectra (WS) of displayed X-ray images at the sub-sampling
rates from pixel-by-pixel mode to 35 %. A used image viewer took image reductions by sub-sampling processing using
bilinear interpolation. We also simulated overall WS from sub-sampled images by bilinear, super-sampling, and nearestneighbor
interpolations. The measured and simulated results agreed well and demonstrated that overall noise
characteristics were attributed to luminance-value fluctuation, sub-sampling effects, and inherent image characteristics of
the LCD. Besides, we measured digital MTFs (modulation transfer functions) on center and shifted alignments from subsampled
edge images as well as simulating WS. The WS and digital MTFs represented that the displaying of reduced
images induced noise increments by aliasing errors and made it impossible to exhibit high-frequency signals.
Furthermore, because super-sampling interpolation processed the image reductions more smoothly compared with
bilinear interpolations, it resulted in lower WS and digital MTFs. Nearest-neighbor interpolation had almost no
smoothing effect, so the WS and digital MTFs indicated the highest values.
Whole-heart coronary magnetic resonance angiography (WH-MRA) is useful noninvasive examination. Its signal
acquisition is performed during very short still timing in each cardiac motion cycle, and therefore the adequate still
timing selection is important to obtain the better image quality. However, since the current available selection method is
only manual one using visual comparison of cine MRI images with different phases, the selected timings are often
incorrect and their reproducibility is not sufficient. We developed an automated selection method to detect the best still
timing for the WH-MRA and compared the automated method with conventional manual one. Cine MRI images were
used for the analysis. In order to extract the high-speed cardiac cine image, each phase directional pixel set at each pixel
position in all cine images were processed by a high-pass filtering using the Fourie transform. After this process, the cine
images with low speed timing became dark, and the optimal timing could be determined by a threshold processing. We
took ten volunteers' WH-MRA with the manually and automatically selected timings, and visually assessed image
quality of each image on a 5-point scale (1=excellent, 2=very good, 3=good, 4=fair, 5=poor). The mean scores of the
manual and automatic methods for right coronary arteries (RCA), LDA left anterior descending arteries (LAD) and LCX
left circumflex arteries (LCX) were 4.2±0.38, 4.1±0.44, 3.9±0.52 and 4.1±0.42, 4.1±0.24, 3.2±0.35 respectively. The
score were increased by our method in the RCA and LCX, and the LCX was significant (p<0.05). As the results, it was
indicated that our automated method could determine the optimal cardiac phase more accurately than or equally to the
conventional manual method.
This report presents the fundamental temporospatial characteristics of a dynamic flat-panel detector (FPD) system. We
investigated the relationship between pixel value and X-ray pulse output, and examined reproducibility, dependence on
pulse width, tube voltage, and pulse rate. Sequential images were obtained using a direct conversion-type dynamic FPD.
The exposure conditions were: 110 kV, 80 mA, 6.3 ms, 7.5 fps,
source-to-image distance (SID) 1.5 m. X-ray pulse
output was measured using a dosimetry system with a sampling interval of 70 μs, to determine temporal changes in each
X-ray pulse output. Temporal changes in pixel value were measured in the obtained images, and the relationship
between pixel value and X-ray pulse output was examined. Reproducibility was assessed by comparing the results in two
sequential images obtained under the same exposure conditions. Moreover, the relationships and properties were
evaluated by changing the pulse width (12 ms and 25 ms), tube voltage (80 kV, 90 kV, and 100 kV), and pulse rate (3.75
fps and 15 fps). The results showed a good correlation between the
X-ray pulse output and pixel values. Fluctuation of
the pixel value measured in sequential images is thought to be mainly due to changes in X-ray pulse output, and is not
caused by FPD.
There is a concern that image lag may reduce accuracy of real-time target tracking in radiotherapy. This study was
performed to investigate influence of image lag on the accuracy of target tracking in radiotherapy. Fluoroscopic images
were obtained using a direct type of dynamic flat-panel detector (FPD) system under conditions of target tracking during
radiotherapy. The images continued to be read out after
X-irradiations and cutoff, and image lag properties in the system
were then determined. Subsequently, a tungsten materials plate with a precision edge was mounted on to a motor control
device, which provided a constant velocity. The plate was moved into the center of the detector at movement rate of 10
and 20 mm/s, covering lung tumor movement of normal breathing, and MTF and profile curves were measured on the
edges covering and uncovering the detector. A lung tumor with blurred edge due to image lag was simulated using the
results and then superimposed on breathing chest radiographs of a patient. The moving target with and without image lag
was traced using a template-matching technique. In the results, the target could be traced within a margin for error in
external radiotherapy. The results indicated that there was no effect of image lag on target tracking in usual breathing
speed in a radiotherapy situation. Further studies are required to investigate influence by the other factors, such as
exposure dose, target size and shape, imaging rate, and thickness of a patient's body.
Screen-film systems are used in mammography even now. Therefore, it is important to measure their physical
properties such as modulation transfer function (MTF) or noise power spectrum (NPS). The MTF and NPS of
screen-film systems are mostly measured by using a microdensitometer. However, since microdensitometers are not
commonly used in general hospitals, it is difficult to carry out these measurements regularly. In the past, Ichikawa et al.
have measured and evaluated the physical properties of medical liquid crystal displays by using a high-performance
digital camera. By this method, the physical properties of screen-film systems can be measured easily without using a
microdensitometer. Therefore, we have proposed a simple method for measuring the MTF and NPS of screen-film
systems by using a high-performance digital camera. The proposed method is based on the edge method (for evaluating
MTF) and the one-dimensional fast Fourier transform (FFT) method (for evaluating NPS), respectively. As a result, the
MTF and NPS evaluated by using the high-performance digital camera approximately corresponded with those evaluated
by using a microdensitometer. It is possible to substitute the calculation of MTF and NPS by using a high-performance
digital camera for that by using a microdensitometer. Further, this method also simplifies the evaluation of the physical
properties of screen-film systems.
The purposes of this study are to analyze signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) changes for in-plane (axial plane) position and in-plane
direction in X-ray computed tomography (CT) system and to verify those visual effects by using simulated small low-contrast disc objects. Three-models of multi detector-row CT were employed. Modulation transfer function (MTF) was obtained using a thin metal wire. Noise power spectrum (NPSs) was obtained using a cylindrical water phantom. The measurement positions were set to center and off-centered positions of 64mm, 128mm and 192mm. One-dimensional MTFs and NPSs for the x- and y-direction were calculated by means of a numerical slit scanning method. SNRs were then calculated from MTFs and NPSs. The simulated low-contrast disc objects with diameter of 2 to 10mm and contrast to background of 3.0%, 4.5% and 6.0% were superimposed on the water phantom images. Respective simulated objects in the images are then visually evaluated in degree of their recognition, and then the validity of the resultant SNRs are examined. Resultant in-plane SNRs differed between the center and peripheries and indicated a trend that the SNR values increase in accordance with distance from the center. The increasing degree differed between x- and y-direction, and also changed by the CT systems. These results suggested that the peripheries region has higher low-contrast detectability than the center. The properties derived in this study indicated that the depiction abilities at various in-plane positions are not uniform in clinical CT images, and detectability of the low contrast lesion may be influenced.
Generally, the modulation transfer function (MTF) of a computed tomography (CT) scanner is calculated based on the
CT value. However, it is impossible to measure the MTF directly because the CT value is defined as a nonlinear function
of the X-ray intensity. Due to this characteristic, the MTF varies with the subject's contrast. Therefore, we measured the
MTFs of a CT scanner using high- and low-contrast wire phantoms. We selected thick copper wire in water as the
high-contrast subject and thin copper wire in water as the low-contrast subject. The MTF measured with the
low-contrast subject was decreased relative to that measured with the high-contrast subject because the CT value was
nonlinear. Thus, to evaluate the spatial resolution in a low-contrast subject such as the human body, we should measure
the MTF with a low-contrast wire phantom. In addition, by using low-contrast subjects, we can approximately determine
the CT value using a linear function.
Recently, several kinds of post-processing image filters which reduce the noise of computed tomography (CT) images
have been proposed. However, these image filters are mostly for adults. Because these are not very effective in small (<
20 cm) display fields of view (FOV), we cannot use them for pediatric body images (e.g., premature babies and infant
children). We have developed a new noise reduction filter algorithm for pediatric body CT images. This algorithm is
based on a 3D post-processing in which the output pixel values are calculated by nonlinear interpolation in z-directions
on original volumetric-data-sets. This algorithm does not need the in-plane (axial plane) processing, so the spatial
resolution does not change. From the phantom studies, our algorithm could reduce SD up to 40% without affecting the
spatial resolution of x-y plane and z-axis, and improved the CNR up to 30%. This newly developed filter algorithm will
be useful for the diagnosis and radiation dose reduction of the pediatric body CT images.
We have developed and reported a super-high resolution liquid crystal display (SHR-LCD) using a new resolution
enhancement technology of the independent sub-pixel driving (ISD) that utilizes three sub-pixels in each pixel
element. This technology realizes the three-times resolution enhancement of monochrome LCDs, and improves the
depiction ability of detailed shape such as micro-calcifications of a mammography and bone structures.
Furthermore, the ISD technology brings not only resolution enhancement but also noise reduction effect by the
high-resolution data sampling in displaying the clinical images.
In this study, we examined the efficacy of the newly developed LCDs from the noise power spectrum
measurement (NPS), the perceptual comparison of the phantom images and the clinical images. A 15 mega-pixel
(MP)SHR-LCD out of a 5MP LCD and a 6MP SHR-LCD out of a 2MP LCD were used for the measurement and
the evaluation. In the NPS measurements, the noise of all the SHR-LCDs was improved obviously. The
improvement degree of the NPS varied according to the sub-sampling ratio of the data sampling implemented
during the image displaying, and the 6MP LCD showed higher improvement. In the perceptual evaluation of the
quality-control phantom images and the low-contrast images of the micro-calcifications of the mammography, all
the SHR-LCDs provided higher performance than the conventional LCDs. These results proved that the SHR-LCDs
using the ISD technology had the excellent ability to display the high-resolution clinical images.
A new resolution enhancement technology that used independent sub-pixel driving method was developed for medical monochrome liquid crystal displays (LCDs). Each pixel of monochrome LCDs, which employ color liquid crystal panels with color filters removed, consists of three sub-pixels. In the new LCD system implemented with this technology, sub-pixel intensities were modulated according to detailed image information, and consequently resolution was enhanced three times. In addition, combined with adequate resolution improvement by image data processing, horizontal and vertical resolution properties were balanced. Thus the new technology realized 9 mega-pixels (MP) ultra-high resolution out of 3MP LCD. Physical measurements and perceptual evaluations proved that the achieved 9MP (through our new technology) was appropriate and efficient to depict finer anatomical structures such as micro calcifications in mammography.
Recently, the system called PCM (phase contrast mammography) came to be applied to clinical examinations. The PCM images are acquired as 1.75x-magnified images using small focal spot, then reduced to real object's size by image processing. The PCM images had the feature that edges of objects were enhanced. It was reported that the edges were enhanced because of refraction of X rays. We measured physical image characteristics of the PCM, to compare image characteristics of the PCM with those of a conventional mammography. Specifically, response characteristics to objects and noise characteristics in the spatial frequency domain were measured. As the results, compared with the conventional mammography, response characteristics of the PCM were high. If the placement conditions of objects were changed, response characteristics were also changed. And if the shape of objects was changed, response characteristics also were changed. Noise characteristics of the PCM were better than those of the conventional mammography. Furthermore, in order to investigate why edges of objects in the PCM images were enhanced, we simulated image profiles which would be obtained if X rays were refracted. And, we found the possibility that edge enhancements of the PCM images were based on refraction of X rays.
KEYWORDS: LCDs, Modulation transfer functions, Digital cameras, CRTs, Manganese, Iterated function systems, Medical imaging, Liquid crystals, Photography, Cameras
We measured modulation transfer functions (MTFs) of liquid crystal displays (LCDs) by rectangular waveform analysis. This method is taking a picture of the bar pattern on the monitor surface with a digital camera, and analyzing the picture with a personal computer. The monitors used are the monochrome LCDs of 1M(about 1 million of the number of pixels), 2M, 3M, and 5M, and the color LCDs of 1M, 2M, 3M. The display of 2M used IPS system and VA system. 3M and 5M of the monochrome LCDs were examined when there was a protective filter or not. Two or three displays are used for each system. In both the monochrome and the color LCDs, MTFs became high as the matrix size increased. In the monochrome LCDs, MTF in horizontal direction was higher than MTF in vertical direction. And there was no difference when a protective filter was used or not. MTFs of the color LCDs had little difference in horizontal direction and the vertical direction. MTFs of the LCDs are influenced on the form and the fill factor of a pixel, and composition of sub-pixels.
KEYWORDS: LCDs, Digital imaging, Digital cameras, Error analysis, CCD image sensors, Data processing, Medical imaging, CCD cameras, Charge-coupled devices, Visualization
A novel noise power spectrum (NPS) measurement method for medical liquid crystal display (LCD) was developed. A uniform image displayed on an LCD was imaged with a high-resolution single-lens reflex type digital camera (D70, Nikon) equipped with a close-up lens. In order to avoid significant errors (frequency leakages) caused by strong periodic components of the pixel structures, noise profile data was processed by periodic components subtraction, and NPS was calculated from the processed profile with fast Fourie transformation (FFT). Horizontal NPS at the center of display area was measured up to the 10 times of Nyquist frequency. Actual measurements were performed with various models of monochrome two million and three million pixel LCDs to investigate difference of conventional method and our proposed method. Resultant NPS obtained from the conventional method with simple FFT included significant errors over the whole frequency ranges. In contrast, our proposed method could compensate most of those errors. Resultant NPS of our method indicated clearly the difference of noise property between three displays we measured, which corresponded to the visual evaluation for them. In conclusion, our method is very useful for evaluation of noise properties of medical LCD due to the good accuracy and reproducibility.
KEYWORDS: Modulation transfer functions, Medical imaging, Video, Digital cameras, Human-machine interfaces, Digital imaging, Image resolution, Manganese, CRTs, Data conversion
A novel MTF(modulation transfer function) measurement method using a bar pattern image for medical image viewers such as DICOM viewer was developed. A bar-pattern image produced by a personal computer was displayed on a cathode-ray-tube (CRT) display and was imaged with a high resolution single-lens reflex digital camera equipped with a close-up lens. The discrete burred square-waveform data acquired from the imaged bar patterns were interpolated using the waveform reproduction technique with Fourier analysis in order to obtain interpolated wave curves. All of the measured pixel values in this process were converted into luminance data. The MTF was calculated from the amplitude values of the extracted basic frequency components in the square-waveform, in which an aliasing error was excluded. Actual measurements were performed with two models of medical image viewer equipped with monochrome displays. Horizontal and vertical MTFs at the central position of display area were measured up to Nyquist frequency. Resultant MTFs clearly indicated the difference in resolution for two viewers, as well as visual evaluation did. The standard deviations of MTF values of 5 measurements at Nyquist frequency were 0.004 and 0.01 for horizontal and vertical directions, respectively. Employment of a commercial single-lens reflex digital camera enabled easy and correct focusing and simple data handling. In conclusion, our method may be useful in the medical field due to good reproducibility and easy operativity.
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