Well-known detection metrics based on Johnson criteria or Target Task Performance (TTP) models were developed for land-based targets [1,2]. In this paper we investigate how (whether) we can apply these metrics to especially recognition and identification of ships at sea. Large sea targets distinguish themselves from land-based targets by their large aspect ratio, when seen broad side, and their relatively large and hot plume. We shall only address the second of these two issues here. First, however, we shall investigate how the simple Johnson approach to recognition and identification stacks up against a TTP approach. The Johnson approach has clear and simple criteria to measure the target task performance. To apply the TTP model N50 (V50) values need to be found through observer trials. We avoid these trials here but estimate the criteria based on a comparison of the models. From analysis of LWIR and MWIR recordings of a multipurpose ship running outbound and inbound tracks, we find little difference between the two metrics. As mentioned, we study the effect of the plume on task performance ranges, by considering two different estimates for the target contrast: the average contrast and the root of the squares of this contrast and the standard deviation of the contrast. We argue that the plume skews the recognition and identification ranges to much too optimistic values when the standard deviation is included. In other words, although the plume helps to detect the target, it does not help the recognition or identification task. It seems a more careful definition of the temperature contrast needs to be applied when these models are used.
In the past decades the Norwegian Defence Research Establishment (FFI) has recorded and characterized infrared
scenarios for several application purposes, such as infrared target and background modeling and simulation, model
validation, atmospheric propagation, and image segmentation and target detection for civilian and defence purposes.
During the last year FFI has acquired several new systems for characterization of infrared radiation properties. In total,
five new infrared cameras from IRCAM GmbH, Germany, have been acquired. These cameras cover both the longwavelength
and extended medium-wavelength infrared spectral bands. The cameras are equipped with fast rotating filter
wheels which can be used to study spectral properties and polarization effects within these wavelength bands. This
option allows the sensors to operate in user-defined spectral bands. FFI has also acquired two HyperCam sensors from
Telops Inc, Canada, covering the long-wavelength and extended medium-wavelength spectral bands, respectively. The
combination of imaging detectors and Fourier Transform spectroscopy allows simultaneous spectral and spatial
characterization of infrared scenarios. These sensors may optionally be operated as high-speed infrared cameras. A
description of the new sensors and their capabilities are presented together with some examples of results acquired by the
different sensors. In this paper we present a detailed comparison of images taken in different spectral bands, and also
compare images taken with the two types of sensors. These examples demonstrate the principles of how the new spectral
information can be used to separate certain targets from the background based on the spectral information.
A multinational field trial (SQUIRREL) was performed at the Eckernförder Bucht, in the Baltic Sea, during September 2011 to study infrared ship signature and atmospheric propagation effects close to the sea surface in a cool environment. In this paper mid-wave infrared camera recordings of ship-mounted sources are analyzed. The camera was positioned about 6 m above mean sea level. Several meteorology stations - mounted on land, on a pier and on a buoy - were used to characterize the propagation environment, while sensor heights were logged continuously. Both sub- and superrefractive conditions were studied. Measurements are compared to results from an earlier field trial performed at Chesapeake Bay, in 2006, during warm and humid atmospheric conditions. The ship-mounted sources - two calibrated blackbody sources at 200 °C and 100 °C - were used to study contrast intensity and intensity fluctuations as a function of distance. The distance to the apparent horizon is also determined. Measurement results are compared to results from the IR Boundary Layer Effects Model (IRBLEM), and good agreement is found.
A ship's exhaust gas contains both hot gas molecules, which emit infrared radiation at specific wavelengths (line
emitters), and soot particles which emit broad-banded, like a black body. Our modeling shows that the observed radiance
from these emissions falls at different rates with distance. The attenuation of intensity is caused by absorption and
scattering of the emitted radiation in the atmosphere. The hottest part of the exhaust plume is spatially confined to a
relative small volume.
Usually, a ship's hull and its superstructure have a higher temperature than the sky or sea background. The temperature
difference is generally not very large. However, the ship has a spatial extent that is much larger than the plume's.
In this work we study how both the emitted radiation from the plume and the ship's total signature decrease with
increasing distance. This study is based on experimental data that was collected during a measurement campaign at the
southwest coast of Norway. Shore-based digital IR cameras, both LWIR and MWIR, recorded image sequences of ships
as they sailed away from close to shore (~ 1 km) in a zigzag pattern out to about 10 km. We used a statistical method to
identify the gas cloud pixels and used their integrated radiance as a measure for the plume intensity. The ship signature is
defined here as the integrated radiance over all the ship's pixels in the imagery.
From infrared spectroscopic data, collected using a Fourier Transform Infrared spectrometer aimed at the ship's plume
when the ship is close to shore, a model is obtained for the composition of the exhaust gas. This model was used to
perform FASCODE simulations to study numerically the attenuation with distance of the plume radiance. Our work
shows that this approach may be well suited to explain the observed signal decay rate with distance.
KEYWORDS: Cameras, Temperature metrology, Mid-IR, Long wavelength infrared, Black bodies, Optical filters, Scattering, Spectroscopy, Solar radiation models, Sensors
In order to detect an object, the object has to be distinguished from its background. Often a contrast number is defined,
the difference between the signals from the object and its background. Hence, detailed knowledge of both is required.
Background measurements made during two measurement campaigns are compared with results from ShipIR modeling
efforts. Specifically, background radiance profiles, extracted from infrared camera recordings and spectrometer
recordings of the sea and sky, and spectral features are highlighted.
A multinational field trial (SAPPHIRE) was performed at the Chesapeake Bay, USA, during June 2006 to
study infrared ship signature and atmospheric propagation effects close to the sea surface in a warm and humid
environment. In this paper infrared camera recordings of both land and ship mounted sources are analyzed. The
cameras were positioned about 4 m above mean sea level. Several meteorology stations - mounted on land, on
a pier and on a buoy - were used to characterize the propagation environment, while sensor heights were logged
continuously. Both sub- and superrefractive conditions were studied. Measurements are compared to results
from earlier field trials performed in Norway during typical North-Atlantic atmospheric conditions (cool air with
little water content), and differences between medium wave and long wave infrared are emphasized. The ship
mounted source - a calibrated blackbody source - was used to study contrast intensity and intensity fluctuations
as a function of distance. The distance to the apparent horizon is also determined. In addition, normalized
variance of intensity for land based sources has been calculated for a number of cases and these values can easily
be converted to refractive index structure constant C2n-values. Measurement results are compared to results from the IR Boundary Layer Effects Model (IRBLEM).
We present results from infrared imaging experiments, performed under hot and humid conditions at Chesapeake Bay,
Maryland, USA in the summer of 2006. Specifically, the objective was to study the intensity of the exhaust gases from a
ship at different distances. In particular there is an interest to quantify the intensity decrease of the plume with distance
and correlate this with simulations of atmospheric transmission. For this purpose the ship ran a predetermined course
making broad-side passes at predetermined distances from the shore-based IR camera as part of the course. The distances
were 1.6, 2.4, 3.2, 4, 6, and 8 km. The cameras are sensitive in the 3 - 5 μm and 8 - 12 μm wavelength ranges. Digital
recordings were made during the ship broad-side passes. It is challenging to identify gas cloud pixels against a
background because the pixels are not necessarily clustered. We present a statistical method to identify the gas cloud
pixels, calculate their average intensity, and determine the contrast between the gas pixels and the background pixels as a function of distance. The contrast versus distance data are then compared with simulations using standard atmospheric transmission software.
Measurements of the spectral radiance of the sky and the sea, taken near Halifax during the September 2001 SIMVEX
trial, indicated that the use of user defined atmospheric profiles, i.e. high altitude atmospheric contributions, were
necessary in order to obtain agreement between measurements and results from simulations using atmospheric radiance
codes. This paper analyzes data obtained under hot and humid conditions during the SAPPHIRE trial at Chesapeake Bay,
Maryland, USA, in the summer of 2006. Digital recordings of the sea and sky background were made using cameras
sensitive in both the 3 - 5 μm and 8 - 12 μm wavelength range. The center of the field of view of the cameras was
pitched from -5 to +15 degrees. In parallel with the imaging experiments, spectrometric data was collected at the same
time. In addition, many different types of meteorological data were collected. Measurements of the vertical radiance
profile near the horizon will be compared with simulation results from ShipIR using various meteorological input
parameters.
We present results from imaging experiments performed in Norway during the 2005/06 winter season. Pairs of infrared sources with different temperatures are placed at different distances, ranging from 50 to 1200 m, from two focal plane array infrared cameras. One of the cameras is sensitive in the 3-5 μm wavelength range and the other in the 8-10 μm wavelength range. During the winter months digital sequences of the IR-sources were recorded, under different meteorological conditions. These conditions ranged from perfectly clear, cloudless weather to heavy snowfall. Analysis consists of comparing the perceived contrast, as measured with the cameras, with the "real" contrast as defined by the temperatures of the IR-sources. It is assumed that the transmission coefficient is the product of the atmospheric transmission (without snow) and a transmission factor associated with the falling snow. FASCODE simulations, using the pertinent temperature and humidity data that were measured during the recordings, are performed to characterize the atmospheric transmission coefficient (without snow). A comparison of the experimental results and the simulation results allows one then to estimate the effect of the falling snow on the extinction coefficient or visibility range. We observed a strong negative correlation between visibility and precipitation rate and better visibility in the MWIR range than in the LWIR range.
Two field trials have been performed on the west coast of Norway to study propagation effects (in particular refraction and
turbulence effects) close to the sea surface. A complete meteorological station and a temperature profile buoy were used to characterize the propagation environment, while sensor height was logged continuously. Land and ship mounted sources were studied using infrared (midwave IR and longwave IR FPAs) and visual cameras at about 4 m above mean sea level (MSL). The land-based sources were mounted about 2-13 m above MSL, while the ship mounted sources were 10 m above sea level. Both sub- and superrefractive conditions were studied during the trials. The sensors were mounted on a programmable motion controller, which allowed extraction of absolute apparent pitch angles of the imaged sources. Apparent horizon distances have been determined for the ship sources, while mirror plane positions and apparent elevation (pitch) angles have been determined for the land sources. In addition, normalized variance of intensity (scintillation index) has been calculated for a number of cases. The scintillation index can easily be converted to refractive index structure parameters (Cn2), one of the key parameters characterizing optical turbulence. Measurement results are compared to results from the IR Boundary Layer Effects Model (IRBLEM
*).
*) IRBLEM is proprietory to the Department for National Defence of Canada as represented by DRDC-Valcartier
The ship signature model ShipIR/NTCS has been selected as a NATO standard. In 2001 Norway participated in the SIMVEX field trial arranged by NATO in Canada for validation of this model. The measurements were performed on a research vessel under different meteorological conditions, when the ship was sun illuminated and shaded, and also at night. This paper presents spectral results from our high resolution FTIR spectroradiometer, Bomem DA5. Using in-house software that enables correction of non-ideal properties of the spectroradiometer, we obtained improved absolute precision of calibrated spectra. The FTIR results are most interesting for sources with signatures deviating significantly from blackbody functions, like the ship plume, sun illuminated surfaces and sea and sky backgrounds. Ship surface and sea and sky background results have been compared with ShipIR/NTCS predictions. Results from plume measurements have been compared with simulated spectra, using the FASCODE atmospheric model, and we have estimated the plume temperature and the concentration of the most important IR contributing molecules.
An infrared field trial has been conducted by a NATO science panel on IR ship signatures, TG-16. This trial was planned, designed and executed for the expressed purpose of the validation of predictive IR ship signature simulations. The details of the trial were dictated by a thoughtful validation methodology, which exploits the concept of "experimental precision." Two governmental defense laboratories, the Norwegian Defence Research Establishment and the US Naval Research Laboratory have used this trial data to perform a validation analysis on the ShipIR IR signature code. This analysis quantifies prediction accuracy of the current versions of the code and identifies specific portions of the code that need to be upgraded to improve prediction accuracy.
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