Long Period Fibre Gratings (LPFGs) were fabricated by femtosecond (fs) laser direct writing in a standard single-mode fibre (SMF-28e) to measure variations in the surrounding refractive index (SRI). The sensing sensitivity of these structures was optimized with the deposition of homogeneous thin layers of titanium dioxide (TiO2) by physical vapour deposition (PVD) process. A set of LPFGs were coated with different thickness layers of TiO2, and the spectral features were monitored for different SRI solutions. The wavelength shift and the optical power variation of the LPFG minimum attenuation band were measured achieving sensitivities of ~570 nm/RIU at using SRI near to 1.3600 in the case of the LPFG coated with 60 nm of TiO2, a 10-fold increase over the corresponding for a bare LPFG. For SRI values higher than the cladding refractive index, a sensitivity over ~3000 nm/RIU was determined for 30 nm of TiO2 thick film, a region where the bare LPFGs are useless. For 30 nm of TiO2, the optical power variation follows a quasi-linear function of the SRI, with a range of ~10 dB. Moreover, values as high as 50 and 120 dB/RIU at 1.3200 and 1.4200, respectively, can be obtained by choosing the proper film thickness. Preliminary studies revealed that coating fs-laser direct writing LPFGs with titanium dioxide improves their performance.
Biogenic amines, such as putrescine are potential indicators of food storage condition and deterioration. The real time measurement of their concentration in food may become an important method of food control. It was found that putrescine diffuses through a thin layer made from a solution of Poly(ethylene-co-vinyl acetate) (PEVA) and maleic anhydride. Poly(ethylene-co-vinyl acetate) is a common non-chlorinated vinyl capable to adsorb specific analytes as putrescine which upon diffusion, reversibly binds to the maleic anhydride causing the polymer swelling resulting in spectral changes from the optical point of view. Long Period Fiber Gratings coated with 30 nm titanium dioxide, a high refractive index material used to increase the intrinsic sensitivity to the external refractive index, were overcoated with a thin layer of maleic anhydride doped Poly(ethylene-co-vinyl acetate). When exposed to solutions containing small concentrations of putrescine the resonant band corresponding to the LP1,6 cladding mode was found to move to shorter wavelengths. The observed blue shift corresponds to the increasing concentration of putrescine in the fiber sensor structure. Further work is being carried out to improve the sensitivity and the limit of detection of the sensing system as well as to increase range of operation, which is presently limited to 0.3 to 0.5 M.
Optical fibre Fabry-Perot interferometers (FPIs) composed by different ultracompact size cavities were fabricated in SMF-28 fibers by using femtosecond (fs) laser micromachining assisted with hydrofluoric (HF) acid. This is made possible due to the high spatial resolution obtained from a non-linear absorption process triggered by the fs-laser exposure. The proposed structures consist of refractive index modified areas written longitudinally from bottom to top by a fs-laser beam that is focused with a 100× oil immersion lens. Then, the inscribed fiber was immersed in a 10 % HF acid solution for 105 minutes. Different FPI structures were developed in the fiber core region, following the same protocol as before, resulting in single open cavities with optical paths from 15 μm to ~ 23 μm length. Inline dual cavities, each with the same optical path but separated by ~ 8 μm length of unmodified fibre core, and a 23 μm wide single FPI cavity followed by an 8000 μm fibre optic cleaved facet were also fabricated. This last configuration results on a convolution of multiple interferences with high and low frequencies capable to monitor different parameters. All the configurations were tested to gas pressure variation and when submitted to different controlled gaseous environments, namely 100% of N2 and 50 % of CH4/N2 achieving sensitivities in the order of 4 nm/MPa and 4.8 nm/MPa, respectively, in pressure range 0-1 MPa with self-temperature compensation. In conclusion, we presented the simultaneous measurement of gas pressure and temperature in the case of the single FPI cavity followed by an 8000 μm fibre optic cleaved facet. Given the preliminary results presented, further research is necessary to improve the performance of such FPIs sensor, for instance, optimization of the cavities sizes for achieving refractive index measurements is still to be done, as well as a more thorough optical characterization.
Optical microbubble resonators are among the highest sensitivity optical sensors. In the context of its application in the detection of water micro contaminants, in portable systems, their interrogation must be made by tracking the resonant wavelength peak position with the highest accuracy possible, at a reasonable cost. In this work different laser sources and scanning methods were tested and compared, aiming the development of a portable prototype. Each tunable laser source, was evaluated using a C2H2 Gas cell, which provided an absolute wavelength reference. Light transmitted through the cell was recorded using a photodetector and a software controlled feedback loop, enabling locking into selected reference peaks. Three distinct scanning methods were tested and compared for each laser source: large and short-range laser scanning and external waveform dithering, from which minimum standard deviations of 20, 0.18, and 0.07 pm, were obtained, respectively.
In this work an investigation of long period fiber gratings (LPFGs) over coated with iron (Fe) thin layers with different thicknesses and subjected to oxidation in air atmosphere under controlled temperature is presented. The formation of iron oxides was monitored in real time by following the optical features of the LPFG attenuation band. The morphology of the oxide layer was further analyzed by scanning electron microscope (SEM). Preliminary results show that iron coated LPFGs can be used as sensors for early warning of corrosion in projects where metal structures made of iron alloys are in contact with atmospheric air.
The design and modelling of a novel magnetic field sensor based on a long period fiber grating coated with a thin film of N doped ZnO is reported. The parameters of both, the grating and the thin film were carefully chosen to operate in the transition mode and near to the dispersion turning point. At this point, an LPFG shows its maximum sensitivity to external refractive index variations. The magnetic field induces variations in the coating refractive index, which changes the effective refractive index of the cladding mode and the consequent spectral response. In this work a sensitivity to the surrounding magnetic field of 2.9 nm/mT is reported with a maximum theoretical resolution of 2 μT.
A study of long period fiber gratings (LPFG) over coated with iron (Fe) and subjected to oxidation in water with different sodium chloride (NaCl) concentrations is presented. The formation of iron oxides and hydroxides was monitored in real time by following the features of the LPFG attenuation band. Preliminary results show that Fe coated LPFGs can be used as sensors for early warning of corrosion in offshore and in coastal projects where metal structures made of iron alloys are in contact with sea or brackish water.
The detection of thrombin based on aptamer binding is studied using two different optical fiber-based configurations: long period gratings coated with a thin layer of titanium dioxide and surface plasmon resonance devices in optical fibers coated with a multilayer of gold and titanium dioxide. These structures are functionalized and the performance to detect thrombin in the range 10 to 100 nM is compared in transmission mode. The sensitivity to the surrounding refractive index (RI) of the plasmonic device is higher than 3100 nm RIU−1 in the RI range 1.335 to 1.355, a factor of 20 greater than the sensitivity of the coated grating. The detection of 10 nM of thrombin was accomplished with a wavelength shift of 3.5 nm and a resolution of 0.54 nM.
The detection of volatile organic compounds is accomplished with a sensing device based on a long period fiber grating (LPFG) coated with a zinc oxide (ZnO) thin layer with self-temperature compensation. The ZnO coating structure was produced onto the cladding of the fiber by thermal oxidation of a metallic Zn thin film. The morphological characterization of ZnO thin films, grown at the same time on silicon substrates, was performed using X-ray diffraction, X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy and Scanning Electron Microscope which shows very good agreement. LPFGs with 290 nm thick ZnO coating were fabricated and characterized for the detection of ethanol and hexane in vapor phase. For ethanol a sensitivity of 0.99 nm / g.m-3 was achieved when using the wavelength shift interrogation mode, while for hexane a much lower sensitivity of 0.003 nm / g.m-3 was measured, indicating a semi-selectivity of the sensor with a spectral resolution better than 3.2 g.m-3.
In this paper real time monitoring of oxidation of transition metals using long period fiber gratings (LPFG) is performed for nickel, copper, titanium, chromium and zinc. A thin layer is deposited over the LPFG with physical process deposition and is annealed up to 700 °C in air with a small oven. The whole oxidation process can be monitored by tracking the LPFG features of the attenuation band which results in an abrupt change when the oxidation occurs depending on the metal sample. A preliminary study to optimize optical fiber sensors sensitivity allowing choosing the correct oxide layer in a specific application is presented.
Optical fiber optrodes are attractive sensing devices due to their ability to perform point measurement in remote locations. Mostly, they are oriented to biochemical sensing, quite often relying on fluorescent and spectroscopic techniques, but with the refractometric approach being also considered when the objective is high measurement performance, particularly when focusing on measurand resolution. In this work, we address this subject proposing and theoretically analyzing the characteristics of a fiber optic optrode relying on plasmonic interaction. The optrode structure is a fiber optic tapered tip layout incorporating a lateral bimetallic layer (silver + gold) and operating in reflection.
Monitoring the quality of high refractive index edible oils is of great importance for the human health. Uncooked edible oils in general are healthy foodstuff, olive oil in particular, however, they are frequently used for baking and cooking. High quality edible oils are made from seeds, nuts or fruits by mechanical processes. Nevertheless, once the mechanical extraction is complete, up to 15% of the oil remains in oil pomace and in the mill wastewater, which can be extracted using organic solvents, often hexane. Optical fiber sensors based on long period fiber gratings (LPFG) have very low wavelength sensitivity when the surround refractive index is higher than the refractive index of the cladding. Titanium dioxide (TiO2) coated LPFG could lead to the realization of high sensitivity chemical sensor for the food industry. In this work LPFG coated with a TiO2 thin film were successfully used for to detect small levels of hexane diluted in edible oils and for real time monitoring the thermal deterioration of edible oils. For a TiO2 coating of 30 nm a wavelength sensitivity of 1361.7 nm/RIU (or 0.97 nm / % V/V) in the 1.4610-1.4670 refractive index range was achieved, corresponding to 0 to 12 % V/V of hexane in olive oil. A sensitivity higher than 638 nm/RIU at 225 ºC was calculated, in the 1.4670-1.4735 refractive index range with a detection limit of thermal deterioration of about 1 minute.
Optical fiber sensors based on the phenomenon of plasmonic resonance can be interrogated applying different methods, the most common one being the spectral approach where the measurand information is derived from the reading of the wavelength resonance dip. In principle, a far better performance can be achieved considering the reading of the phase of the light at a specific wavelength located within the spectral plasmonic resonance. This approach is investigated in this work for surface plasmon based fiber optic sensors with overlays which are combinations of bimetallic layers, permitting not only to tune the wavelength of the plasmon resonance but also the sensitivity associated with the phase interrogation of the sensors. The metals considered for the present analysis are silver, gold, copper, and aluminum.
Optical fiber sensors based on the phenomenon of plasmonic resonance can be interrogated applying different methods, the most common one being the spectral approach where the measurand information is derived from the reading of the wavelength resonance dip. In principle, a far better performance can be achieved considering the reading of the phase of the light at a specific wavelength located within the spectral plasmonic resonance. This approach is investigated in this work for fiber optic SPR sensors with overlays which are combinations of metallic and dielectric thin films, permitting not only to tune the wavelength of the SPR resonance but also the sensitivity associated with the phase interrogation of the sensors.
In this work we present a new low cost SPR (Surface Plasmon Resonance) sensor configuration based on efficient higher-order mode filtering in plastic multimode fibers, using a tapered POF (Plastic Optical Fiber) after the sensor system, without decreasing the sensitivity of the sensor. In particular, we present the experimental results obtained with this new configuration. The experimental results have shown as the tapered POF after the sensor system influences the performances in terms of refractive index range and Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR).
Surface Plasmon Resonance (SPR) is the base for some of the most sensitive label free optical fiber biosensors. However, most solutions presented to date require the use of fragile fiber optic structure such as adiabatic tapers or side polished fibers. On the other hand, long-period fiber gratings (LPG) present themselves as an interesting solution to attain an evanescent wave refractive index sensor platform while preserving the optical fiber integrity. The combination of these two approaches constitute a powerful platform that can potentially reach the highest sensitivities as it was recently demonstrated by detailed theoretical study [1, 2]. In this work, a LPG-SPR platform is explored in different configurations (metal coating between two LPG – symmetric and asymmetric) operating in the telecom band (around 1550 nm). For this purpose LPGs with period of 396 μm are combined with tailor made metallic thin films. In particular, the sensing regions were coated with 2 nm of chromium to improve the adhesion to the fiber and 16 nm of gold followed by a 100 nm thick layer of TiO2 dielectric material strategically chosen to attain plasmon resonance in the desired wavelength range. The obtained refractometric platforms were then validated as a biosensor. For this purpose the detection of thrombin using an aptamer based probe was used as a model system for protein detection. The surface of the sensing fibers were cleaned with isopropanol and dried with N2 and then the aminated thrombin aptamer (5’-[NH2]- GGTTGGTGTGGTTGG-3’) was immobilized by physisorption using Poly-L-Lysine (PLL) as cationic polymer. Preliminary results indicate the viability of the LPFG-SPR-APTAMER as a flexible platforms point of care diagnostic biosensors.
An analytical model based on geometrical optics and multilayer transfer matrix method is applied to determine the sensing properties of tapered optical fiber based SPR sensors incorporating bimetallic (Gold and Silver) layers, particularly when phase interrogation is considered. Phase interrogation is studied as a methodology to attain enhanced sensitivities. The performance of the sensing heads as function of the bimetallic layers and taper parameters is analyzed. It is shown the bimetallic combination is capable to provide larger values of sensitivity compared with the single layer approach. The results derived from this study are guiding the experimental study of these structures.
This work describes an all-fiber Fabry-Pérot interferometer (FFPI) that is sensitive to gas pressure variations. The geometry of the air cavity consists on splicing a small section of silica rod with a large offset in between two singlemode fibers. It is shown that the FFPI sensor is sensitive to gas pressure variation and when submitted to different gaseous environments, namely carbon dioxide, nitrogen and oxygen, it presented different sensitivities of 6.2, 4.1 and 3.6 nm/MPa, respectively. This result is obtained due to refractive index difference between gases. The refractive index change on nitrogen environment by means of the gas pressure variation resulted in a sensitivity of 1526 nm/RIU. The response of the sensing device to temperature in air was also determined and a sensitivity of -14 pm/°C was attained.
Many optical systems based on Surface Plasmon Resonance (SPR) have been developed for work as refractometers, chemical sensors or even for measure the thickness of metal and dielectric thin films. These kinds of systems are usually large, expensive and cannot be used for remote sensing. Optical fiber sensors based on SPR has been widely studied for the last 20 years with several configurations mostly using multimode optical fibers with large cores and plastic claddings. Sensors based on SPR present very high sensitivity to refractive index variations when compared to the traditional refractive index sensors. Here we propose a SPR sensor based in a single mode fiber. The fiber end is chemically etched by emersion in a 48% hydrofluoric acid solution, resulting a single mode fiber with the cladding removed in a small section. A resonance dip around 1580 nm was attained in good agreement with the simulation scenario that takes into account the real characteristics of the fiber.
An analytical model based on geometrical optics and multilayer transfer matrix method is applied to the surface plasmonic resonance supported by fibre taper structures in the context of optical sensing applications. Phase interrogation is considered in particular as a methodology to attain enhanced sensitivities, and the performance of the sensing heads as function of the metal clad and taper parameters is analyzed. General topics concerning the actual relevance of plasmonics are also presented, first in a global perspective and then when applied to sensing.
In this work, a hybrid interferometer for simultaneous measurement of the partial pressures of O2 and CO2 mixtures is
reported. The sensing head consist in two different interferometers based on a Fabry-Perot cavity and a modal
interference configuration. The intrinsic FP cavity was created by splicing a single mode fiber (SMF28) with a graded
index fiber section that was then subjected to chemical etching creating a cavity. The second interferometer is based on a
splice of a pure silica tube in series with the Fabry-Pérot. Due to the design, different sensitivities are achieved for the
pressure inducing refractive index changes of each gas. The rms deviations were found to be ± 0.079 kPa and ±
0.029 kPa for CO2 and O2 partial pressure measurements, respectively.
A spatial optical filter based on splice misalignment between optical fibers with different cladding dimensions is
proposed for gas refractometry. The sensing head is formed by a 2 mm-long optical fiber with 50 μm diameter spliced
with a strong misalignment between two single mode fibers (SMF28) and interrogated in transmission. This fiber
structure causes a Fabry-Pérot-behavior along the reduced-size fiber giving at its output end a well defined spatial
filtering selectivity. Depending on the misalignment position of the lead-out SMF28, it is possible to obtain two different
spectral responses, namely, bandpass or band-rejection filters. It is shown that this filter device is highly sensitive to
refractive index changes on a nitrogen (N2) environment by means of the gas pressure variation. A maximum sensitivity
of -1390 nm/RIU for the bandpass filter was achieved.
A multimode interferometer based-fiber optic sensor with a silica tube section aimed to measure refractive index (RI) variations of surrounding liquids is presented. The sensing head is a silica tube section fusion spliced to single mode fibers operating in transmission. In the splice regions tapers were made to allow the light to be guided in the silica tube while the core is formed by air. This configuration permits measurements of refractive index variations with sensitivities of 101.1, 106.29, and 107.97 nm/RIU considering resonances with different wavelengths. The same resonances were tested with temperature variations with sensitivities achieved of 7.8, 8.7, and 9.3 pm/ °C, respectively. The spectral variation associated with one degree temperature change corresponds to a refractive index change of ∼8 × 10−5, proving the low temperature dependence compared with sensitivity to RI variations.
Optical fibre sensors for Hydrogen detection at low concentrations has become a growing research area using Palladium
as an active medium. Palladium is widely used in hydrogen sensing as it show a high and selective affinity for hydrogen.
This metal is capable to absorb hydrogen up to 900 times its own volume which permits that during the expansion
mechanical forces are applied in the fibre modifying the optical response. Several optical fibre hydrogen sensor heads
coated with Palladium are presented and compared using different working principles: interferometric, intensity and fiber
grating-based sensors. These principles were applied in Fabry-Perot cavities, fibre Bragg gratings written in fibre SMF28
with etching in the cladding, multimode interferometers and fibre end micro-mirrors. Palladium thin film coatings over
the fibre surface and with thicknesses from 10nm to 350nm were produced by using the sputtering RF technique. These
studies were performed in a Hydrogen/Nitrogen atmosphere with Hydrogen concentrations from 0% to 4% (lower limit
explosion). The Bragg grating inscribed in a fibre with reduced cladding diameter appears to be one of the best
approaches for a fibre optic sensing head for Hydrogen detection. Future work will continue the investigation of other
fibre optic structures with Hydrogen sensing capabilities and their application in specific field situations will be assessed.
The underground movement of water through soil and rock is an important phenomenon in Civil Engineering. Its study
is made more appealing to students if small scale prototypes are used, where several layouts of soil and water in steady
state/transient conditions can be studied in detail. A water tank prototype was built with a reflective optical fibre pressure
sensor based on a GRIN lens and a mirror. The mirror is connected to an elastic membrane that is deformed when water
pressure is applied and the lens is correctly aligned with the mirror and fixed. The distance between the mirror and the
lens changes, so the reflective optical power changes as well and it is directly proportional to the water pressure inside
the tank. The results obtained for water pressure up to 4 kPa for filling and emptying operations show that the sensor has
a linear response for pressure changes between 1.7 kPa and 3.4 kPa with a slope of 181 μW/kPa for filling and
191 μW/kPa for emptying. It is also observed some hysteresis that may possibly be reduced by choosing another material
for the membrane. Using this type of sensor head it is possible to monitor different pressure points in the small scale
prototype using the standard OTDR (Optical Time Domain Reflectometer) equipment.
In this work the concept of long period based optical fibre sensors with the broadband light illumination generated just
after the sensing structure is presented. This new approach allows the interrogation in transmission of the sensing head
while integrated in a reflective configuration, which means the LPG sensor is seen in transmission by the optical source
but in reflection by the measurement system. Also, it is shown that with this illumination layout the optical power
balance is more favorable when compared with the standard configurations, allowing better sensor performances
particularly when the sensing head is located far away from the photodetection and processing unit. This is demonstrated
for the case of the LPG structure applied to measure strain and using ratiometric interrogation based on the readout of the
optical power reflected by two fibre Bragg gratings spectrally located in each side of the LPG resonance.
It is reported a LPG dynamic interrogation technique based on the modulation of fibre Bragg gratings located in the
readout unit that permits to attenuate the effect of the 1/f noise of the electronics in the resolution of the LPG-based
sensing head. The concept is tested to detect variations of the external refractive index and a resolution of 2.0×10-4 NIR
was achieved without system optimization. Additionally, the effect in the sensor resolution when introducing Erbium and
Raman optical amplification is experimentally investigated.
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