We present a combined photoluminescence (PL) and photomodulated reflectivity (PMR) study of three GaN/InGaN multiquantum well samples. We reported previously that the change in carrier concentration (n) induced by the pump beam can be measured by lock-in techniques using a simple Drude model to calculate n from the change in reflectivity. Here we extend the work by simultansously measuring a thermal signal from the sample, we can thus measure the internal quantum efficiency ηi of samples as a function of carrier concentration. This yields an ηi vs n curve that is strikingly different to those reported previously by PL and electroluminescent techniques (EL), with a very rapid (in n) drop off due to the droop process.
Matthew Halsall, Michelle Vaqueiro Contreras, Vladimir Markevich, Jose Coutinho, Paulo Santos, Iain Crowe, Ian Hawkins, Stanislau Lastovskii, Leonid Murin, Anthony Peaker
For 40 years it has been deduced that the presence of Boron and Oxygen in silicon causes the formation of a non-radiative recombination centre, without any consensus as to its exact nature. Here we report the observation, using deep level transient spectroscopy and photoluminescence of the conversion of a deep boron-di-oxygen-related donor trapping state into a shallow acceptor under the action of light or injected carriers. Using ab initio modelling, we propose structures of the B-O2 defect which match the experimental findings. Implications of the presence of this defect, particularly on its deep donor (carrier trapping) configuration, on silicon photodetectors is discussed.
KEYWORDS: Molecular photonics, Silicon photonics, Molecules, Waveguides, Sensors, Microrings, Resonators, Waveguide sensors, Near field optics, Near field
Silicon photonics micro-ring resonator (MRR) and Mach-Zehnder waveguide based sensors have attracted much attention in recent years because of their capacity for high sensitivity, small footprint and mass-scalable (low cost) potential. This type of sensor is based on the detection of changes in optical amplitude/phase due to small changes in local, near-field refractive index (RI) in the environment surrounding the waveguide device. Sensitivity to ever smaller changes in RI are sought, e.g. for vapour/gas based sensing, which may be realised by designing devices based around the slot waveguide. Furthermore, tailoring resonant line-shapes to generate asymmetric (or Fano-like) modes through series, parallel or ‘nested’ arrangements of coupled MRRs also demonstrates the potential for such sensitivity enhancement. This type of device is likely to be of interest, for example where sensing of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) is important, e.g. in industrial process and environmental monitoring.
We demonstrate a number of such photonic sensing platforms, combining both the slot waveguide and both established and novel ‘photonic molecule’ structures, fabricated on silicon-on-insulator using standard foundry fabrication processes. Integrated TiN heaters provide the capacity for thermal tuning in order to manipulate the spectral characteristics of our devices and the sensitivity of the devices to a range of VOCs; benzene, toluene and xylene, are investigated as exemplars using a custom-made vapour delivery system. Sensor performance is established with the assistance of device modelling and comparison made with conventional single MRR devices as a reference. The potential of adding functional layers to the devices as a method for achieving chemical selectivity will also be discussed.
We present the results of an optical investigation of a series of Er doped silicon nanocrystal (Si-NC) samples which were
fabricated via ion implantation into SiO2 on sapphire substrates, followed by a range of rapid thermal processing. The
photoluminescence spectra of the Si-NC emission revealed an increase in luminescence intensity and a red-shift of the
peak wavelength as a function of annealing conditions. We attribute the former effect to the reduction of implantation
induced defects with increasing annealing temperature/duration. Measurements of the rate of decay of
photoluminescence intensity at room temperature show a corresponding increase in the carrier lifetimes which is also an
indication of a reduced contribution from non-radiative centers. The red-shift of the peak Si-NC intensity is ascribed to
an increasing mean Si-NC size as a function of the annealing conditions. Also presented is an estimation of the relative
Er sensitization which reveals that the smallest Si-NC size distribution leads to the greatest sensitization ratio. Further
investigation in the form of excitation spectroscopy was used to show that Er ions are sensitized not only by energy
transfer from the Si-NCs, but also, crucially, from defect states in the SiO2.
We present a combined analysis using cross-sectional transmission electron microscopy (X-TEM) and Raman
spectroscopy to study the early formation dynamics of Si-nanocrystals, formed in SiO2 thin films after Si+ implantation
and rapid thermal processing (RTP). We obtained values for the diffusion coefficient of Si in thermally grown SiO2 and
the activation energy to precipitate formation in the first 100 seconds of high temperature annealing. These values
indicate that the formation of Si-nanocrystals in implanted oxides proceeds much more efficiently than purely via a self
diffusion process. We propose that the nanocrystal formation is assisted by the presence of both oxygen vacancies and
SiO molecular species, presumably generated by the ion irradiation. Microscopy images reveal the ensemble nanocrystal
population to be most accurately represented by a lognormal distribution function with characteristic values for the mean
particle diameter, d and variance, σ. The evolution of the silicon nanocrystals with annealing was also investigated by
measuring the Raman scattering signal associated with the TO phonon mode arising from Si-Si bonds in Si-rich oxides
grown on transparent (Al2O3) substrates. This greatly simplifies the experimental observation of the Raman spectra from
Si-nanocrystals as compared to previous studies of nanocrystals in oxide films on silicon substrates.
We present comprehensive experimental study of p-type (Be) and n-type (Si) &dgr;-doped GaAs/AlAs multiple quantum
wells (QWs) intended to be used as selective sensors/emitters in terahertz (THz) range. The structures of various designs
and doping levels were studied via different optical-photoreflectance-, surface photovoltage- and differential surface
photovoltage. spectroscopies and a THz photocurrent technique using as THz emission source either free electron- or
optically-pumped molecular THz laser within 4.300 K range of temperatures. Analysis of Franz-Keldysh oscillations in
photoreflectance spectra and line shapes of the differential surface photovoltage spectra enabled to estimate built-in
electric fields and excitonic parameters for a large number of QW subbands. The experimental interband transition
energies were compared with calculations performed within the envelope function approximation taking into account
non-parabolicity of the energy bands. The dominant exciton line broadening mechanisms were revealed, and the
interface roughness was evaluated from analysis of the dependence of exciton linewidth broadening on the QW width.
Terahertz spectroscopic measurements in p-type structures have indicated strong absorption around 55 &mgr;m wavelength
due to intraband absorption of the bound holes, while increase in photocurrent in the structures below 80 &mgr;m wavelength
is caused by photothermal ionization of Be acceptors.
We have studied interband optical transitions, electronic structure and structural quality of p-type (Be) and n-type (Si) &dgr;-
doped GaAs/AlAs MQWs designed for selective THz sensing applying differential surface photovoltage (DSPV)
spectroscopy. Sharp derivative-like features associated with excitonic optical transitions in GaAs/AlAs MQWs have
been observed in the spectra at 300 K and 90 K temperature. The energies and line broadening parameters for a large
number of QW related excitonic transitions were determined from the line-shape analysis of the DSPV spectra. The
spectroscopic data of transition energies were found to be in a good agreement with calculations within the envelope
function approximation which took into account the nonparabolicity of energy bands. Analysis of the dependence of the
exciton linewidth broadening on the quantum subband number allowed evaluate line-broadening mechanisms and
interface roughness in the MQW structures. It was determined that doping with Si broadens more effectively the optical
spectra lines in comparison with the structures of the same design doped with Be.
We present a study of phonon sidebands in the photoluminescence spectra of Be acceptor-doped GaAs/AlAs multiple
quantum wells at liquid nitrogen temperature. Up to two phonon satellites with a separation close to the GaAs
longitudinal optical phonon energy are observed in the sideband of the photoluminescence. A theoretical analysis of the
satellite-related photoluminescence lineshapes and their energetic position and impurity induced spectra is presented.
The results show that the phonon satellites can be attributed to free-electron-Be acceptor transitions involving
longitudinal optical phonon of GaAs - the host material of the studied quantum wells.
We measured the photoreflectance (PR) and wavelength-modulated differential surface photovoltage (DSPV) spectra of
δ-doped GaAs/AlAs multiple quantum wells (MQW) with different well widths and doping levels. We demonstrated that
PR and DSPV are powerful contactless tools for the characterization of MQW structures. We observed Franz-Keldysh
oscillations in the PR spectra, which enabled us to determine the built-in electric fields in the GaAs/AlAs MQW
structures. As it turned out, in the GaAs buffedcap layers the field strength is in the range of 18-20 kV/cm. It was found
that a buried interface rather than the structure surface very probably governs the SPV effect. Sharp features associated
with excitonic optical transitions were revealed in both, PR and DSPV spectra. From the line shape analysis of the
modulation spectra, we estimated optical transition energies and broadening parameters. The energy levels and interband
transition energies calculated by the transfer matrix method are in good agreement with the experimental values. The
influence of the doping on the broadening of exciton resonances was observed and investigated.
Normal dopant species in III-V semiconductors from shallow donors or acceptors whose atomic-like transitions have energies of the order of 3-20meV which corresponds to the Terahertz region of the spectrum. It has been suggested that these levels could be utilized in an impurity based THz laser system developing a solid-state THz source from such a technology will require engineering of the energy levels to favor radiative recombination. In this paper we report initial experiments to measure the 1s-2p scattering rate for holes bound to Beryllium acceptors in a bulk GaAs epilayer using the European free electron laser facility FELIX. Two absorption lines were studied the so-called D and C lines at 167 cm-1 corresponding to 1s-2p transitions of the Beryllium acceptors. At high pump powers these lines were saturated and it was possible to perform Pump-probe measurements to observe the recovery of the absorption as a function of time. The temperature dependence of the decays was also measured. The D and C transitions were found to decay with lifetimes of 360ps and 440ps respectively. This represents the firs direct measurement of these transition lifetimes which are much longer than those reported for intersubband scattering. The result are highly encouraging and support the concept of an impurity based Terahertz device for room temperature operation.
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