A 50 mm diameter membrane mirror was designed and manufactured at TU Delft. It is made from bulk silicon by micromachining - a technology primarily used for micro-electromechanical systems (MEMS). The mirror unit is equipped with 39 actuator electrodes and can be electrostatically deformed to correct wavefront errors in optical imaging systems. Performance tests on the deformable mirror were carried out at Astrium GmbH using a breadboard setup with a wavefront sensor and a closed-loop control system. It was found that the deformable membrane mirror is well suited for correction of low order wavefront errors as they must be expected in lightweighted space telescopes.
The tunable liquid crystal (LC) lens designed for a holographic projection system is demonstrated. By using a single patterned electrode LC lens, a solid lens and an encoded Fresnel lens on the LCoS panel, we can maintain the image size of the holographic projector with different wavelengths (λ674nm, 532nm and 445nm) . The zoom ratio of the holographic projection system depends on the lens power of the solid lens and the tunable lens power of the LC lens. The optical zoom function can help to solve the image size mismatching problem of the holographic projection system.
KEYWORDS: Holograms, 3D image processing, Integral imaging, Imaging systems, Holography, Gaussian beams, 3D displays, Digital holography, 3D image enhancement, Digital imaging
Conventional 3D Integral imaging suffers from limited image depth range due to the fixed distance between the display
panel and the lens array, while digital Fresnel holography suffers from a narrow viewing angle due to the lack of a high
resolution spatial light modulator. This paper proposes an original system which combines the advantages of these two
techniques to provide an integral imaging system of a reasonable viewing angle with accommodation cues.
Brian Robertson, Zichen Zhang, Haining Yang, Maura Redmond, Neil Collings, Jinsong Liu, Ruisheng Lin, Anna Jeziorska-Chapman, John Moore, William Crossland, D. Chu
To optimise the design of a wavelength selective switch based on a phase-only liquid crystal on silicon spatial light
modulator and mitigate crosstalk, we propose using a technique referred to as wavefront encoding that involves
purposefully building a wavefront error into the optical system. Experimental results taken at 674nm are presented that
show wavefront encoding based on defocus can reduce the worst case crosstalk by >10dB compared to a standard
Fourier transform set-up. In the case of the WSS we propose using wavefront encoding based on astigmatism.
In a fibre-optic communication network, the wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM) technique enables an expansion
of the data-carrying capacity of optical fibres. This can be achieved by transmitting different channels on a single optical
fibre, with each channel modulating a different wavelength. In order to access and manipulate these channels at a node of
the network, a compact holographic optical switch is designed, modelled, and constructed.
The structure of such a switch consists of a series of optical components which are used to collimate the beam from the
input, de-multiplex each individual wavelength into separated channels, manipulate the separated channels, and reshape
the beam to the output. A spatial light modulator (SLM) is crucial in this system, offering control and flexibility at the
channel manipulation stage, and providing the ability to redirect light into the desired output fibre. This is achieved by
the use of a 2-D analogue phase computer generated hologram (CGH) based on liquid crystal on silicon (LCOS)
technology.
Computational holography becomes highly complicated and demanding when it is employed to produce real three-dimensional (3D) images. Here we present a novel algorithm for generating a full parallax 3D computer generated hologram (CGH) with occlusion effect, which is an important property of 3D perception, but has often been neglected in most CGH related works. The ray casting technique is introduced to handle the occlusion issue. Horizontally and vertically distributed rays are projected from each hologram sample to the 3D objects to obtain the complex amplitude distribution. The proposed algorithm has no restriction on-or approximation to-the 3D objects, and it can produce reconstructed images with correct shading effect and no visible artifacts. An optical experiment is performed to validate our approach, using a phase-only spatial light modulator to optically reconstruct a 3D scene. The experimental result confirmed that the CGHs produced by our algorithm can successfully reconstruct 3D images with full parallax and occlusion effect.
Holographic laser projection is high efficiency when using analogue phase spatial light modulators and high brightness
laser sources. The experimental work reported will describe the use of digitally addressed nematic liquid crystal on
silicon devices for the analogue phase holograms. The laser sources are based on the tapered laser concept and have been
provided by a European project called WWW.BRIGHTER.EU.
LCOS for phase-only holography is ideally made to better optical tolerance than that for conventional
amplitude modulating applications. Die-level assembly is suited to custom devices and pre-production
prototypes because of its flexibility and efficiency in conserving the silicon backplane. Combined with
automated assembly, it will allow high reproducibility and fast turnaround time, making a way for
pre-production testing and customer sampling before mass production. Optical testing is the key
element in the process. By taking into account the flatness of both the backplane and the front glass
plate, we have assembled LCOS devices. We have reached our aim of less than one quarter wavelength
phase distortion across the active area.
Reconfigurable shutter-based free-space optical switching technologies using fiber ribbon and multiple
wavelengths per fiber for Storage Area Networks (SANs) application are presented and demonstrated.
Nanolithographic fabrication techniques may soon enable electrically-driven LCoS
devices to be manipulated using ultra-nanoscale CMOS transistors. However, questions
as to the switching properties of such LCoS devices arise due to the diminishing dimensions
of their transistors. Thus, experimental investigations into the response times and
the onset-threshold voltages for LCoS devices were embarked upon. Such measurements
were obtained for various electrode dimensions and cell gaps. Furthermore, an interdigitated
(IDT) electrode pattern was used to drive the homeotropically-aligned NLC material
in a direction parallel to the bounding planes of the cell. Experimental findings
revealed that faster response times were achieved when the electrode spacings were decreased.
Such results have shown that a 10μm-thick device with an electrode pitch of 2μm
can achieve a switch-on time of < 5ms. In addition, decreasing the electrode spacing results
in the threshold voltage to drop. The results therefore indicate that improvements in
a LCoS device's switching properties can be realised by using smaller electrode dimensions.
A shutter-based free-space optical switching core has been proposed as a promising technology for constructing Storage
Area Networks (SANs) over an optical network. A vital component of this switch architecture is the use of a spatial light
modulator (SLM) which can enhance the SANs performance. New optical materials are utilized to raise the switching
speed and ferroelectric liquid crystals (FLCs) or transparent lanthanum-modified lead zirconate titanate (PLZT) used as
an SLM have been compared. Both are capable of reaching the 3 usec target, by either raising the temperature or
switching voltage, which is acceptable for SANs since the performance is dominated, not so much by switching speed,
but more by reliable robust switching throughput. A six-by-six free-space 12-channel multi-mode fiber ribbon switch
system using one fixed wavelength has been implemented. The objective of this paper is to demonstrate that
multiwavelength operation based on the CWDM band in each fiber can be implemented on the same shutter-based free-space
optical switching architecture using a FLC SLM.
Traditionally, the light receptor and light modulation aspects of Optically Addressed Spatial Light Modulators (OASLMs) occur in separate layers. Due to the progress that has been made in the study of nonlinearity in liquid crystal cell doped with chromophores in the past 20 years, it is appropriate to consider in what ways they themselves may be useful as OASLMs. The light reception and modulation aspects coexist within the same layer in these cells.
We have been studying a variety of chromophore-doped systems (azo and anthraquinone dyes, buckminsterfullerene, and carbon nanotubes) over the past four years. Dynamic holographic grating formation is observed under conditions of low power laser light both with and without external fields. The majority of the samples are planar aligned and normal incidence of light can be used. They possess very good lifetime stability and no degradation even under high write light intensities. We understand how to avoid permanent recordings using appropriate alignment surfaces. This is important in OASLM applications where real-time updating of written information is required (dynamic holography, all-optical switching). The resolution of the devices is superior to the thickness of the liquid crystal layer, and comparable to the best traditional OASLMs. We are currently working on understanding the dynamics in order to address the issue of speed of response. The report will include latest results on diffraction efficiency from our OASLM characterization set-up.
Liquid crystal on silicon (LCoS) devices have been exploiting the ever-diminishing CMOS silicon process, which is pushing towards 45nm dimensions. Consequently, such fine metallic structures are bound to influence the alignment of the liquid crystal material. To illustrate this, a number of 1D metal patterns with differing mark-to-space ratio were fabricated using an Electron-Beam exposure technique. The results confirmed Dwight Berreman's topological alignment theory regarding the pitch of the surface topography and how this influences the quality of the planar alignment. Patterns with a metal to spacing ratio of 1:1 were shown to yield higher contrast ratios and hence better planar alignment. Such findings could be useful for developing non-intrusive alignment methods for nanoscale LCoS devices.
Storage Area Network (SAN) has gradually developed as the demand for storage capacity and fast access has increased. The traditional way of attaching storage directly to the servers over a SCSI bus has limited scalability. Several drawbacks and limitations have turned up. Switched Fibre Channel SAN resolves all of these issues. In this paper, the architecture of the switch fabric for the SAN is discussed. The complete design of the free-space optical switching core based on the diffractive element and the PLZT shutter is proposed.
We report the use of an experimental ferroelectric liquid crystal material called CDRR8 in bistable optically addressed spatial light modulators for both amplitude- and phase-modulating devices. First, the methods used to improve the alignment and obtain truly bistable switching with CDRR8 are described. The diffraction efficiency and switching characteristics of a bistable CDRR8 optically addressed spatial light modulator used as an amplitude-modulating device and then as a phase-modulating device for encoding high-resolution patterns are compared. The CDRR8 devices exhibit bistability when driven by alternating monopolar pulses. The results show that the use of a device as a phase-modulating rather than an amplitude-modulating device, increases the diffraction efficiency by 10 times. Resolution is better than 100 lp/mm, as measured by the fall in diffraction efficiency by 50% compared with the diffraction efficiency at low spatial frequencies.
Passive optical interconnection is being used in large packet switches to allow size scale up and more efficient heat dissipation from the electronic processors. The line card is the electronic island whose size is determined by thermal dissipation technology. We have selected an optical interconnection technology that is low cost, fiber ribbon, and we are working on the shutter arrays, which allow active routing. This will reduce the demands on the electronic processors. Progress on a 180 Gbps switch will be reported.
It is shown that 2,6 azo-substituted anthraquinone dye-doped systems are interesting alternative to Methyl Red (MR) doped NLCs as materials for Optically Addressed Spatial Light Modulators (OASLMs) without amorphous silicon layer. Nonlinearity in liquid crystals doped with new dye is studied. Dynamic holographic grating formation is observed under conditions of low power laser light and no external fields. The samples are planar and normal incidence of light is used. The results for dynamic holographic studies are compared with azo dye MR crystals and C60. It is shown that this dopant competes with the best known materials in terms of performance in 10 ms speed regime. The system under investigation possesses very good time stability and outstanding light fastness (even a power exceeding working light intensity 100 times is not destructive to the material). It does not form permanent component at any conditions, which is vital for applications where constant change of written information is required (OASLMs, dynamic holography, all-optical switching). Possible mechanisms and the nature of effects that lead to the photorefractive effect in the anthraquinone system are discussed. Resolution of the devices, their efficiency and optimal working conditions are investigated.
A light valve is a key component for optical signal processing. A liquid crystal layer is activated by light due to a proximate photoconducting layer. Contemporary commercial light valves are made with an amorphous silicon photoconducting layer which offers an impedance change between light and dark states of up to three orders of magnitude. One drawback of using amorphous silicon is that the resolution of the valve is limited by lateral photocharge spreading. We hope to overcome this by using thin organic photoconducting layers.
Optical switches based on liquid crystal SLM (Spatial Light Modulators) have traditionally been considered unsuitable for packet switching due to slow reconfiguration speed. In this paper we investigate the constraint of reconfiguration time in an optically interconnected packet switch. A system architecture based on the established knockout principle and input/output buffers is simulated with self-similar traffic patterns and packet length statistics obtained from NLANR. Analysis includes packet delay distribution, queue length growth. A physical realisation of the system will use VCSEL arrays, detector arrays and multi-mode ribbon fibre. Data granularity of the system is chosen to match the specification of modern line cards used in routers. It is found that a reconfiguration time in the order of micro seconds is sufficient for an acceptable delay and loss rate. Relationships between required reconfiguration time and system parameters are established.
Amorphous silicon/ferroelectric liquid crystal spatial light modulator technology is reviewed. The current performance of the CUED device is summarised, together with first results from two application demonstrators in 3D and high resolution display which have been recently constructed. The paper will conclude with guidelines for improved OASLM performance in dye-doped liquid crystal layers.
The specification of an optoelectronic switching module suitable for a packet router is presented. The module has a throughput of 500 Gb/s and will be the building block for a larger switch with a throughput of 131 Tb/s.
A miniature electrically addressed spatial light modulator (EASLM) using standard CMOS processing comprises a crystalline silicon transistor array underlying a layer of ferroelectric liquid crystals and is intended for use in optical information processing as a high-frame rate input device. But the resolution is insufficient for modern video display. We have investigated a display system that tile the image from the EASLM on a pixilated optically addressed spatial light modulator (OASLM) using a binary phase hologram. This system consists of a ferroelectric liquid crystal EASLM with 320 X 240 pixels, a high frame rate video signal controller, a 532 nm laser as a light source of video projector, a binary phase hologram for 4 X 4 image multiplying and a 4 X 4 pixilated OASLM, with the optics for projecting video images. The threshold sensitivity of the OASLM is about 10 (mu) W/cm2 and its spatial resolution is about 50 lp/mm. The binary phase hologram is designed to fan out the asymmetric project image into 3 X 4 in the ratio of horizontal and vertical size for being memorized on the one part of the pixilated OASLM. The experimental value of the diffractive efficiency of the hologram is quite similar to the theoretical value, but the zeroth of diffractive beam is not removed completely. The displayed video image has a very high-resolution of 1280 X 960 pixels or a 3D display of 4 X 4 multiviews, depending on the images of the video projector.
We report on the recent progress in the development membrane micromachined deformable mirrors (MMDM) technology. A MMDM with a membrane diameter of 50 mm developed for an astronomical application has a P-V surface error of 1.8 micrometers within light aperture of 35 mm. The mirror features a maximum surface deflection of 18 micrometers and a response time better than 2 ms. A highly reflective (R approximately 99.8%) MMDM can be continuously operated under a CW laser load of up to 50 W. A special linear configuration of MMDM was recently used to compress a femtosecond laser pulse from 150 fs to 15 fs, also circular MMDM was used to correct wavefront deformations in femtosecond lasers. We also report on the application of the MMDM in a self-referenced adaptive optical system with the loop frequency of 8 Hz and for coupling of pumping radiation in fiber lasers with considerable--up to 48%--improvements of the coupling/luminescence efficiency.
Work on neural networks which use liquid crystal projection screens to code the input and weight matrices and a liquid crystal light valve to perform integration and thresholding is reviewed.
Main characteristics of the SLM's based on the chalcogenide glass photoconductor--liquid crystal structure under different operating conditions and SLM applications as input and real-time holographic devices in the JTC and as integrating/threshold elements in optical neural networks are discussed.
We report on the complexity, alignment, mechanical stability, and assessment of an optical neural network, with special emphasis on the liquid crystal light valve.
We report on the optical setup, device characterization and performance in a pattern recognition task of a neural network with 256 neurons and optical feedback.
We report on ongoing work with a compact all-optical recurrent neural network with 16 X 16 channels and 256 X 256 reconfigurable interconnects (weights). We will present the optical setup and report on experimental work with the system and its building blocks. The microlens-based setup shows excellent imaging properties and easy alignability. After optimizing the setup, losses could be realized by more than an order of magnitude. The system performance is currently limited by inhomogeneities of the thresholding device.
This paper presents a FELC/VLSI spatial light modulator which has been built as a component for optoelectronic neural networks. The device exhibits analogue optical modulation and is capable of optical memory. It is the first parallel optical device that implements a learning algorithm in its pixels.
A programmable multilayer neural network is under construction to illustrate the advantages of optical interconnects (scaleability, bandwidth) and to overcome the disadvantages of optical devices (limited precision, nonideal transfer characteristics, lack of subtraction). The disadvantages will be surmounted with the help of dedicated software engineering and additional optical hardware. The complete system design is summarized, and the construction of the first matrix vector multiplier subunit is detailed together with first test results. Finally, the progress made on the remaining subunits is reported with a perspective to future work.
This paper presents two smart VLSI/FELC spatial light modulators which are designed as a somatic plane and a synaptic plane for optoelectronic implementations of artificial neural networks.
KEYWORDS: Neurons, Photodetectors, Optoelectronics, Very large scale integration, Analog electronics, Optical computing, Silicon, Chemical elements, Tolerancing, Optical interconnects
A systems is described which finds solutions to the 6-city TSP using a Kohonen-type network. The system shows robustness with regard to the light intensity fluctuations and weight discretization which have been simulated. Scalability to larger size problems appears straightforward.
A GaAlAs Fabry-Perot device has been grown which displays thermally stable switching with a threshold of 1 mW and a contrast ratio of 10:1. With the help of theoretical analysis and experimentation we probe the issues which are relevant to using this class of device in a practical system context.
Liquid crystal light valves (LCLVs) have found application in many proposed and demonstrated optical computing systems. In many cases the polarization state of the illumination is used to encode information, e.g., symbolic substitution and neural networks. In these applications it is often desired that two linear and orthogonal states of polarization result from the devices used. This is the form of polarization coding used in this paper. Any deviations from these desired polarization states will results in signal crosstalk within the system. Typically, the light reflected from the light valve is elliptically polarized. By adjusting the drive conditions or setting the light valve at a fixed azimuth, the degree of ellipticity can be minimized. However, the rotation of the major axis is usually less than 90 degree(s). The authors characterize three different types of LCLVs based on twisted nematic, aligned nematic, and ferroelectric (smectic C) liquid crystals. The optical activity and birefringence of the devices as a function of write light intensity are being studied. System crosstalk resulting from any deviations from the desired characteristics is discussed.
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