Very high-resolution space borne missions demand finer spatial sampling and larger swath coverage for several commercial and strategic applications including cartography, disaster monitoring, urban planning, and surveillance. To meet these contrasting requirements, optical sensors often employ optical butting techniques in their focal planes as this enables the usage of small format detectors instead of large format single detectors, thereby reducing fabrication costs. In the optical butting technique, small reflecting mirrors placed before the focal plane split the optical field into smaller segments, which are alternately imaged by individual small format detectors. A single continuous image is formed using the small image segments through image processing technique. This requires optimal overlaps among the image segments with adequate image quality in the common imaged region. Factors, such as the geometric alignment of detectors with the butting mirror edge, edge-vignetting effects causing modulation transfer function, and signal-to-noise ratio degradations in the overlapping regions, largely determine the achievable overlap and image quality in the optically butted focal planes. Our study presents a comprehensive framework for the optimization of overlapping pixels in the optically butted focal planes based on a quantitative multicriteria analytical approach. The proposed framework has been tested for various sensor configurations to establish its efficacy. Our study will enable the efficient design and development of high-performance focal plane assemblies for high-resolution optical sensors.
Traditionally, high-resolution electrooptical (EO) sensors are placed in Sun-synchronous orbits (SSO) as they enable consistent solar illumination during imaging and near-global coverage for various remote sensing applications. However, these sensors inherently offer limited swath coverage resulting in poorer imaging efficiency and often require a large number of satellites in constellation for improving revisit time over region of interest (RoI). Compared with constellation of satellites in SSO, a smaller number of satellites in lower inclination orbits can provide significant advantage in terms of imaging efficiency in the tropical and near-tropical RoIs, which is desirable for many civilian and strategic applications. In this work, detailed analytical simulations have been performed for inclined orbit constellation of high-resolution EO sensors, and higher imaging efficiency has been demonstrated against SSO constellation. Rigorous mathematical models are developed to enable optimization of constellation design with proper fine-tuning of orbital parameters to maximize imaging efficiency in the RoI, and the model output is validated through STK simulation. For quantitative evaluation of imaging efficiency, two figures of merits, namely, average number of access per day and number of days with no access, have been estimated for various design cases. This study shows significant improvements in imaging efficiency parameters up to a factor of 3 in RoI as compared with traditional SSO constellation. This study is generic in nature and is applicable for any inclination angles and latitudes in the tropical and near tropical RoIs. This study can significantly aid in design of satellite constellations for future remote sensing missions.
Time delay and integration (TDI) detectors are preferred image sensors for high-resolution spaceborne imaging systems for cartographic applications as they provide higher sensitivity by integrating charges over multiple TDI stages in push broom mode. Large swath requirements are met using multiple TDI detectors in optical butting configuration in the focal plane assembly (FPA) to form a single image line on the ground. These detectors need to be aligned with subpixel accuracy to avoid motion smear and errors in the image mosaicking process. Alignment of the multiple TDI detectors in the FPA is a challenging task and is accomplished using custom methods and setups. Passive alignment techniques rely on very high-resolution microscopes for achieving desired accuracies. Active method requires TDI detectors to be operated in staring mode, which is architecturally and functionally not supported by TDI detectors. We developed a scheme for operating the TDI detectors in staring mode without any smear effects to aid in the active alignment process. Based on this, we propose an active alignment approach. The proposed approach is highly advantageous as it can be used throughout the imaging system development phase to demonstrate stability of the alignment and also helps in cross validation with the passive alignment. The developed method was test validated on qualification model FPA, and alignment accuracy of the order of 0.4 μm in tilt and 1.2 μm in line shift has been demonstrated, against the requirements of ±1.5 μm. This method has been extensively used in Cartosat-2S series imaging systems and will be very useful for upcoming high-resolution missions of the Indian Space Research Organisation.
We present here the optical and mechanical design of a fiber-fed High-resolution spectrograph at resolution (R) = 100,000 which will be under vacuum (0.001 to 0.005 mbar) and temperature controlled environment at 25C ± 0.001C. The spectrograph will be attached to our upcoming new PRL 2.5m aperture telescope at Gurushikar, Mount Abu, Rajasthan, India. The spectrograph is named PARAS-2 after the successful operation of PARAS (PARAS-1) with our existing 1.2m aperture telescope at Gurushikar, Mount Abu since 2012 summer. The spectrograph (PARAS-2) will be operating in the range of 380nm to 690nm wavelength in a single shot using Grism as a Cross Disperser, R4 Echelle at blaze angle of 76degrees, and pupil diameter of 200 mm. We will use a combination of octagonal and circular fibers along with double scrambler and simultaneous calibration for getting down to the RV precision of 50cm/s or better (< 50cm/s). Minimum 30% time will be reserved for exoplanet work with the spectrograph on the 2.5m telescope when it becomes operational in early 2020. The overall efficiency of the whole spectrograph (Echelle, M1, M2, FM, Grism, Camera lens system, Dewar window) excluding fiber is expected to be 22.5% - 28% and 4% - 8% including optical fiber, telescope and fibertelescope interface losses.
Silicon based charge coupled device (CCD) performances have improved immensely over the years. Scientific community across the globe target challenging remote sensing applications with CCD as optical imaging detector. Over the years, both pixel count (from few hundreds to few tens of thousands) and line readout rate (from few kHz to few tens of kHz) have increased considerably. Pixels are readout using a large number of output ports driven up to few tens of MHz Moreover, for multi-spectral applications, same Si die contains multiple arrays sharing input stimuli. This is usually done to optimize package pin count. Si die as well as package level layout of clock and bias lines become critical for closely spaced multi-array devices. The inter-array separation may go down to few hundreds of microns when filter coating is laid on top of the die. Die level layout becomes quite critical for devices with such architecture. The inter-array (consecutive arrays) separation is optimized to reduce optical coupling / stray light in devices integrated multi-band strip filter. Layout constraints along with shared bias/clock lines are known to produce electrical cross-talk or coupling. Effect of this (within one array or between two arrays) cross-talk is more pronounced in systems having low noise floor. Video signal dependent coupling in a multi-port system becomes quite complex and leads to a relatively noisier system (post correction). The paper presents results of simulations and tests (pre and post correction) addressing this type of electrical coupling. The paper presents cause, impact and possible remedial measures to minimize such coupling in a multi-array, multi-port TDI CCD from 1.3% to below 0.06%.
The Earth’s airglow layer, when observed in the limb view mode, appears to be a double layer. LiVHySI onboard YOUTHSAT (inclination 98.730, apogee 817 km, launched by Indian Space Research Organization in April, 2011) is an Earth’s limb viewing camera measuring airglow emissions in the spectral window of 550-900 nm. Total altitude coverage is about 500 km with command selectable lowest altitude. During few of the orbits we have observed the double layer structure and obtained absolute spectral intensity and altitude profile for 630 nm airglow emission. Our night time observations of upper atmosphere above dip equator carried out on 3rd May, 2011 show a prominent 630 nm double layer structure. The upper airglow layer consists of the 630 nm atomic oxygen O(1D) emission line and lower layer consists of OH(9-3) meinel band emission at 630 nm. The volume emission rate as a function of altitude is simulated for our observational epoch and the modeled limb intensity distribution is compared with the observations. The observations are in good agreement with the simulated intensity distribution.
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