speed, fibre optic communication or cost per CCD pixel often follow a smooth logarithmic improvement per year. This
seems desirable, but progress is frequently only achievable by introduction of new software, different types of storage
media or new operating conditions. Consequently technologies become outdated. For transient information this is
unimportant, but for long term storage and archiving of information, images, photographs etc, there is an inevitable loss
of earlier records. This is not a new phenomenon as even information on stone or clay tablets has decayed or been lost,
either by physical decay of storage materials or loss of understanding because of changing language and cultural
nuances.
Examples emphasise how technological progress has speeded up information decay and loss. Since logarithmic "laws"
have been proposed to describe the trends for electronic improvements, one may consider if equivalent trends apply to
information loss. It appears that one may propose that the product of three factors is roughly constant. These are the time
needed to write the new information; the quantity of information stored, and the average survival time of the information
before the storage medium has decayed or is obsolete. The reality of such a "law" is that, whereas we may currently have
records and photographs from many earlier generations, our rapidly stored electronic data may be lost within a few years,
and certainly will have vanished in a readable form for the next generation.
Photomultiplier tubes are widely used detectors of low level light signals; however their performance is often limited,
especially at long wavelengths. Input signals are reduced both by surface reflection and by transmission through the
photocathode layer. Earlier methods of overcoming these weaknesses are summarized. New predictive modelling of the
reflectivity and absorption reveals dependencies that are a function of angle of incidence, cathode thickness and
polarization. Improvements on normal usage using extremely simple and low cost techniques are effective. These are
demonstrated using retrofits that can improve the overall sensitivity of many types of photomultiplier. Examples include
a simple external conical torch reflector, which has raised the efficiency of an S20 multialkali photocathode by between
20 to 10% across the blue to red spectral range. A second example, of a semi-cylindrical glass coupler, improved the
absorption efficiency by exploiting 60 degree, rather than normal incidence of the light. Enhancements are up to 500% at
longer wavelengths. Such gains are particularly valuable as this is the region of lowest quantum efficiency for the
standard operation of the tubes.
The easy and non-destructive fluorescence method for quantification of early changes in biological tissues improves the possibilities of the clinical research and diagnostics. Developments in this area are moving very rapidly in part because of advances in the technology and in part because of the numerous successful examples which are appearing. New family of photomultiplier tubes with a high detection sensitivity for near-infra red light (700-900 nm) were developed as a result of project IMPECABLE, which are valuable tools for early diagnosis of cutaneous pigmented melanoma using long-wave fluorescence dyes.
Several phthalocyanines that are promising fluorophores for photodiagnosis of cutaneous malignant melanoma have been studied in different solvents for concentrations from 10-5 to 10-15 mol. Argon pumped dye laser as an excitation source was used. Three different wavelengths (613, 633 and 660 nm) in the red region, corresponding to first absorption peak, minimum of the absorption and near to the Q-band maximum of Pcs were applied. Fluorescence signals in the region of 700 to 800 nm were detected using spectrometric systems (Perkin-Elmer, UK-with conventional PMT as a detector, and PC2000, Ocean Optics, USA-with CCD-array as a detector) and a newly developed red-sensitive PMT. Detectable signal from other spectrometric systems was obtain up to 10-8 mol concentrations, which could be used for significant reduction of concentrations applied for in vivo applications.
Fluorescence is a highly sensitive method of distinguishing between healthy and unhealthy tissue. The results demonstrate that extremely low concentrations of photosensitizers could be used to determine initial stages of melanoma. This application of PMT detectors will reduce extremely the negative side effects of higher concentrations of these drugs applied in the skin tissue. One can achieve high accuracy in the determination of pigmented malignant melanoma lesions with wide clinical applications.
Ion implantation of insulator surfaces offers opportunities to alter many surface properties, both from modifications of the pre-existing structures, to addition of new material and formation of thermodynamically metastable compounds. Optical applications have included production of waveguides, waveguide lasers, SHG waveguides, related devices and surface luminescence. Similarly, metallic implants have found considerable use in the generation of nanoparticles which are used in non-linear optics, or where the metallic nanoparticles are size and material selected to control the wavelength dependence of the reflectivity. In all these cases the initial results of the implantation generates variations in property which change with depth. The complex pattern of change is invariably accompanied by unwanted side effects. For example, for luminescence and laser signals derived from rare earth implants there is unwanted host lattice damage. This lattice damage cannot easily be thermally removed without unwanted clustering of the rare earth ions. Conversely, in metallic nanoparticle usage the clustering is desirable, but the implants form a depth dependent particle size distribution whereas a narrow sie distribution is preferred. Once again simple thermal treatments alone cannot establish the ideal conditions. A major value of laser pulsed annealing is that one can achieve controlled temperature excursions for a sufficiently short time duration that long term diffusion effects can be avoided. Wavelength selectivity can further allow treatment to initially couple energy either to the host or specific types of site.
Examples variously include both the removal of damage and/or nanoparticles, and controlled particle growth or precipitation of new crystalline phases. These case studies show that pulse laser anneals can make major modifications in a wide range of properties. Some new experiments are proposed.
Pulsed laser annealing has been used to modify the surface and refractive index profiles of ion implanted waveguides formed in Nd:YAG and LiNbO3 crystals. Improvements are seen form reduced losses in the niobate guides and by enhanced index confinement in the garnet. In both materials these beneficial changes require optimization, since prolonged laser treatments can introduce surface damage int eh niobate, and/or emphasize the problems of surface instability on the garnet. Overall the improvements in waveguide loss and surface quality are encouraging. New data are discussed for loss and refractive index profiles, and compared with existing data on surface second harmonic generation quality analysis. Optimization of the laser pulse power, and the number of pulses are predicted to improve guide quality in both materials, particularly for guides implanted with more than one energy, which will increase the initial width of the guide boundary.
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