We describe the application of SCOS technology in non-intrusive, directional and spatially localized measurements of high electric fields. When measuring electric fields above a certain threshold, SCOS measurement sensitivity starts varying to a great extent and the linear approximation that assumes sensitivity to be constant breaks down. This means that a comprehensive nonlinear calibration method is required for accurate calibration of both low and high electric fields, while linear calibration can only be accurately applied for low fields. Nonlinear calibration method relies on the knowledge of the variability of sensitivity, while linear calibration relies on approximation of sensitivity with a constant value, which breaks down for high fields. We analyze and compare the two calibration methods by applying them to a same set of measurements. We measure electric field pulses with magnitudes from 1 MV/m to 8.2 MV/m, with sub-300 ns rise time and fall-off time constant of 60 μs. We show that the nonlinear calibration very accurately predicts all measured fields, both high and low, while the linear calibration becomes increasingly inaccurate for fields above 1 MV/m.
We demonstrate the measurement of and applications for reflected spectral signatures obtained from FBG sen- sors in dynamic environments. Three uses of the spectral distortion measurements for monitoring of airframe structures are presented: the measurement of the dynamic response of a laminated plate to an impact event; the measurement of damage induced spectral distortion in a thin plate during vibration loading; and the measurement of the change in dynamic response of an adhesively bonded joint with the progression of fatigue damage.
This paper presents an overview of non-intrusive electric field sensing. The non-intrusive nature is attained by creating a
sensor that is entirely dielectric, has a small cross-sectional area, and has the interrogation electronics a long distance
away from the system under test. One non-intrusive electric field sensing technology is the slab coupled optical fiber
sensor (SCOS). The SCOS consists of an electro-optic crystal attached to the surface of a D-shaped optical fiber. It is
entirely dielectric and has a cross-sectional area down to 0.3mm by 0.3mm. The SCOS device functions as an electric
field sensor through use of resonant mode coupling between the crystal waveguide and the core of a D-shaped optical
fiber. The resonant mode coupling of a SCOS device occurs at specific wavelengths whose spectral locations are
determined in part by the effective refractive index of the modes in the slab. An electric field changes the refractive
index of the slab causing a shift in the spectral position of the resonant modes. This paper describes an overview of the
SCOS technology including the theory, fabrication, and operation. The effect of crystal orientation and crystal type are
explained with respect to directional sensitivity and frequency response.
We demonstrate the measurement of and applications for full-spectral measurements collected from FBG sensors
in dynamic loading environments. The measurement of the dynamic response of a laminated plate to an impact
event highlights the information gained during the event as compared to after the event. The measurement
of damage induced spectral distortion in a thin plate during vibration loading demonstrates the capability of
separating spectral distortion due to multiple effects, including damage and vibration loading. Finally, the
measurement of the change in dynamic response of an adhesively bonded joint highlights the capability to
measure the progression of fatigue damage. Confirmation that the change in FBG response is due to fatigue
damage is performed through independent pulsed phase thermography imaging of the adhesively bonded joint.
We present an optical fiber non-intrusive sensor for measuring high voltage transients. The sensor converts the unknown voltage to electric field, which is then measured using slab-coupled optical fiber sensor (SCOS). Since everything in the sensor except the electrodes is made of dielectric materials and due to the small field sensor size, the sensor is minimally perturbing to the measured voltage. We present the details of the sensor design, which eliminates arcing and minimizes local dielectric breakdown using Teflon blocks and insulation of the whole structure with transformer oil. The structure has a capacitance of less than 3pF and resistance greater than 10 GΩ. We show the measurement of 66.5 kV pulse with a 32.6μs time constant. The measurement matches the expected value of 67.8 kV with less than 2% error.
Ion traps are widely used in the field of mass spectrometry. These devices use high electric fields to mass-selectively trap, eject, and count the particles of a material, producing a mass spectrum of the given material. Because of their usefulness, technology pushes for smaller, more portable ion traps for field use. Making internal ion trap field measurements not yet feasible because current electric field sensors are often too bulky or their metallic composition perturbs field measurements. Using slab coupled optical sensor (SCOS) technology, we are able to build sensors that are compatible with the spacing constraints of the ion trap. These sensors are created by attaching a nonlinear crystal slab waveguide to an optical fiber. When a laser propagates through the fiber, certain wavelengths of light couple out of the fiber via the crystal and create “resonances” in the output light spectrum. These resonances shift in proportion to a given applied electric field, and by measuring that shift, we can approximate the electric field. Developing a sensor that can effectively characterize the electric fields within an ion trap will greatly assist in ion trap design, fabrication, and troubleshooting techniques.
One challenging need for inspection capabilities is in adhesively bonded joints between composite components, a common location of premature failure in aerospace structures. In this work we demonstrate that dynamic, full spectral scanning of FBG sensors embedded in the adhesive bond can identify changes in bond quality through the measurement of non-linear dynamics of the joint. Eighteen lap joint specimens were fabricated with varying manufacturing quality. Ten samples also included fiber Bragg grating (FBG) sensors embedded in the adhesive bond for real-time inspection during a simulated flight condition of these single-lap joints. Prior to testing, pulse phase thermography imaging of the pristine specimens revealed defects such as air bubbles, adhesive thickness variations, and weak bonding surface between the laminate and adhesive. The lap joint specimens were then subjected to fatigue loading, with regular interrogation of the FBG sensors at selected load cycle intervals. The FBG data was collected during vibration loading of the lap joint to represent an in-flight environment. Changes in the lap joint dynamic response, including the transition to non-linear responses, were measured from both the full-spectral and peak wavelength FBG data. These changes were correlated to initial manufacturing defects and the progression of fatigue-induced damage independently measured with pulse phase imaging and visual inspections of the failure surfaces.
When fiber Bragg gratings (FBG) are tightly packed in a mesh and their peaks get close at a distance on the order of individual FBG spectrum widths, they start overlapping and there is a distance below which both peaks won’t be detectable anymore using standard peak detection method. Ability to determine locations of individual peaks even after they overlap allows more gratings in a mesh and an increase in shape sensing resolution. We use a linear interpolation method to estimate peak locations when peaks overlap and become undetectable with standard peak finding technique. We test this algorithm on experimentally obtained data and compare peak locations obtained by the algorithm to exact peak locations. We analyze the error to show that algorithm performs well when velocity of peaks stays uniform during peak crossing. However, the error rapidly increases if the velocity changes during crossing and the maximum error can occur in a situation when peaks change direction during peak crossing.
In this study we evaluate the measurements of a fiber Bragg grating (FBG) sensor embedded at the adhesive layer of a single composite lap joint subjected to harmonic excitation after fatigue loading. After a fully-reversed cyclic fatigue loading is applied to the composite lap joint, the full spectral response of the sensor is interrogated in reflection at 100 kHz during two states: with and without an added harmonic excitation. The dynamic response of the FBG sensor indicates strong nonlinearities as damage progresses. The short-time Fourier transform (STFT) is computed for the extracted peak wavelength information to reveal time-dependent frequencies and amplitudes of the dynamic FBG sensor response. Pulse-phase thermography indicates a progression in defect size at the adhesive layer that strongly suggests non-uniform loading of the FBG sensor.
We present a fiber Bragg grating (FBG) interrogation method using a micro-controller board and optical filter that
achieves high strain sensitivity and high dynamic range. This interrogation method allows high sensitivity detection of
ultrasonic waves superimposed on low-frequency (on the order of 100Hz) vibrations of arbitrary magnitude. One
possible application is in-situ structural health monitoring of windmill blades exposed to strong winds by using FBG sensors for detection of ultrasonic waves. Interrogator operation is based on the edge filtering method using a broadband source, fiber Fabry-Perot filter and a micro-controller board which acts as a control feedback loop that locks the filter wavelength to the mid-reflection point on the FBG spectrum. Wavelength locking method allows high sensitivity for edge filtering of high-frequency waves, while the feedback signal is the measurement of low-frequency vibration with high dynamic range. The concept of the interrogator operation and different implementations are described and discussed with experimental results.
This paper presents improvements to slab-coupled optical fiber sensors (SCOS) for electric-field sensing. The improvements are based on changing the crystal cut and orientation of the slab waveguide in combination with altering the input light polarization. Traditional SCOS are fabricated using z-cut potassium titanyl phosphate crystals and are operated with TM polarized light. They have been shown to detect fields as low as 100 V/m. By using an x-cut crystal and TE polarized light, the sensitivity to electric fields is increased 8x due to, primarily, an increase in electric field penetration into the slab by exploiting a tangential boundary condition, and secondly, an increase to the effective electro-optic coefficient of the slab.
This paper presents innovations that reduce the dimensions and interrogation complexity of a previously developed
multi-axis electric field sensor. These devices are based on slab coupled optical sensor (SCOS) technology. SCOS
are sensitive to electric fields that are parallel to the optic axis of the electro-optic slab. Electric fields are measured
in two axes by mounting SCOS devices, which have slabs with optic-axes perpendicular to the fiber (z-cut),
orthogonal to each other. In order to reduce dimensions of the sensor, the third-axis is measured by having a slab
with the optic-axis parallel to the fiber (x-cut). Since the resonant mode coupling of a SCOS device occurs at
specific wavelengths whose spectral locations are determined in part by the effective refractive index of the modes
in the slab, rotating a z-cut slab waveguide relative to the optical fiber will cause the spectral position of the
resonance modes to shift. This method allows the resonance modes to be tuned to specific wavelengths, enabling a
multi-axis SCOS to be interrogated with a single laser source.
We used high-speed full-spectrum interrogation of a Fiber Bragg Grating (FBG) sensor to measure dynamic strain in
different sensor packages in real-time. In this effort we performed solenoid impact tests on a variety of sensor mounting
structures made with FR4, steel, and carbon fiber composite materials. Full spectrum FBG interrogation at 40 kHz
repetition rate was the key that allowed us to measure and compare dynamic strain in the structures, with measurement
resolution on the sub-millisecond scale. With this interrogation method we were able to measure the full character of the
dynamic strain including the strain non-uniformity and distribution manifested in peak-splitting and spectrum
broadening. Results showed that the FR4 board with soft epoxy responded with a maximum dynamic strain on the order
of 3000 micro-strain. Adding hard materials such as steel and graphite fiber composite reduced the strain about 7 times.
However, the FR4 board mounted in a free-floating configuration using hard epoxy reduced the maximum strain to a
value below the noise threshold of the full spectrum interrogation configuration. Here we proposed using edge detection
method of FBG interrogation due to its increased strain sensitivity which enabled us to further analyze the critical results
obtained by full spectrum interrogation. We also proposed using edge detection to measure sensor strain in real time for
the purpose of filtering out the strain noise from useful signal. We will use the results and data obtained with both
methods to analyze and enhance the performance of our electric field sensors in environments of high static and dynamic
strain.
In this study we evaluate the measurements of a fiber Bragg grating (FBG) sensor subjected to a non-uniform static
strain state and simultaneously exposed to vibration loading. The full spectral response of the sensor is interrogated
in reflection at 100 kHz during two loading cases: with and without an added vibration load spectrum. The static
tensile loading is increased between each test, in order to increase the magnitude of the non-uniform strain field
applied to the FBG sensor. During steady-state vibration, the behavior of the spectral shape of the FBG reflection
varies depending on the extent of non-uniform strain. With high-speed full spectral interrogation, it is potentially
possible to separate this vibration-induced spectral change from spectral distortions due to non-uniform strain. Such
spectral distortion contains valuable information on the static damage state of the surrounding host material.
This paper presents a high repetition rate fiber Bragg grating (FBG) interrogation system that is able to capture the entire
reflection spectrum at a rate of up to 300 kHz. The system uses a high speed MEMS based tunable optical filter that is
driven with a sinusoidal voltage. The time varying FBG reflection spectrum in transmitted through the tunable filter.
The time varying signal is then mapped into time varying reflection spectra. This interrogation system is used during
two dynamic strain tests, in which the reflection spectra are measured at a repetition rate of 100 kHz. The first test is the
impact of a woven carbon composite and the second test is on an electromagnetic railgun.
Ultra small magnetic field sensors are created using magneto-optic slab waveguides coupled to optical fiber. The
magneto-optic material used is bismuth-doped rare earth iron garnet (Bi:RIG). By etching close to the core of D-type
optical fiber and attaching a magneto-optic material, light transfers from the fiber to the slab waveguide at specific
wavelengths. The wavelengths that couple depend on the refractive index of the slab that changes in the presence of a
magnetic field. When a field is applied, the wavelength coupling shifts and a resulting change in power can be detected.
The sensors reported in this paper detect magnetic fields as low as 11 A/m.
This paper provides a description of electric field sensing using the slab coupled optical fiber sensor (SCOS) with an
emphasis on the detection electronics. This analysis includes estimated signal strength and the main noise sources. With
all noise eliminated except for the shot noise in the photodetector, thermal noise in the terminating resistor, and the
thermal noise in the low noise amplifier the theoretical sensitivity is calculated to be 0.85 V/m Hz^0.5. The signal is
measured using an electrical spectrum analyzer and found to have a sensitivity of 1.34 V/m Hz^0.5.
In this study we evaluate the measurements of a fiber Bragg grating (FBG) sensor subjected to a non-uniform static
strain state and simultaneously exposed to vibration loading. The full spectral response of the sensor is interrogated in
reflection at 100 kHz during two loading cases: with and without an added vibration load spectrum. The static tensile
loading is increased between each test, in order to increase the magnitude of the non-uniform strain field applied to the
FBG sensor. The spectral distortion due to non-uniform strain is observed to change once the sensor is exposed to a non-transient
150 Hz vibration spectrum. With high-speed full spectral interrogation, it is potentially possible to separate this
vibration-induced spectral change from spectral distortions due to non-uniform strain. Such spectral distortion contains
valuable information on the static damage state of the surrounding host material.
This paper demonstrates the value of D-type optical fibers (D-fibers) in a variety of sensing applications. The principal
advantage of the D-fiber is that it allows for interaction with light traveling in the core of an optical fiber with materials
or structures placed in contact with the fiber. This permits stimulus sensitive materials to be placed on the D-fiber to
interact with the light in the core of the fiber. The presentation shows that this feature of D-fibers can be used to create
alternatives to sensors formed in standard optical fibers for measuring temperature, strain, and shape change. In addition,
D-fiber sensors have been fabricated to measure chemical concentrations, and electric fields.
Modern electronics are often shielded with metallic packaging to protect them from harmful electromagnetic
radiation. In order to determine the effectiveness of the electronic shielding, there is a need to perform non-intrusive
measurements of the electric field within the shielding. The requirement to be non-intrusive requires
the sensor to be all dielectric and the sensing area needs to be very small. The non-intrusive sensor is attained
by coupling a slab of non-linear optical material to the surface of a D shaped optical fiber and is called a slab
coupled optical fiber sensor (SCOS). The sensitivity of the SCOS is increased by using an organic electro-optic
(EO) polymer.
This paper presents a means for the high repetition rate interrogation of fiber Bragg gratings (FBG's). The new system
highlights a method that allows a tradeoff between the full spectrum capture rate and the wavelength range and/or the
spectral resolution of the technique. Rapid capture of the entire reflection spectrum at high interrogation rates shows
important features that are missed when using methods that merely track changes in the peak location of the spectrum.
The essential feature of the new system is that it incorporates a MEMs tunable filter driven by a variable frequency openloop
sinusoidal source. The paper demonstrates the new system on a laminated composite system under impact loading.
High powered microwave weapons use electric fields to overload electronics. We developed a non-intrusive sensor
using a technology based on slab coupled optical sensing (SCOS). Each sensor detects the electric field component
normal to the surface of the slab. By mounting two of these sensors orthogonally to each other, a more complete
image of the electrical field can be obtained. One of the major hurdles of creating a multi-axial SCOS is keeping the
size of the sensor small. The size is limited by (1) the size of the sensing material and (2) the ability to package the
sensor to maintain its structural integrity and orientation. Good sensitivity is attained with SCOS with a length less
than 3 mm and the D-fiber platform has a small core which allows for much less bending loss than standard single
mode fiber. We have developed a mounting system that is heat resistant and structurally robust to protect the sensor
that is extremely small when compared to traditional electric field sensors.
In this study we evaluate the measurements of fiber Bragg sensor spectra from a sensor embedded in a composite
laminate subjected to multiple low velocity impacts. The full-spectral response of the sensor is interrogated in reflection
at 100 kHz during the impact events. The measurement of the time dependent spectra features are compared with
previous results obtained at a 534 Hz interrogation rate. With the increased interrogation rate, we can observe a smooth
transition in the full-spectra response of the sensor between strikes and the presence of peak-splitting due to transverse
compression from the beginning of the laminate lifetime. Finally, at the 100 kHz acquisition rate, it is possible to
determine the maximum wavelength and accurately determine the duration of the impact event for all of the strikes.
This paper presents the full-spectral measurement of fiber Bragg grating sensor responses during impact testing of
composite laminates. The sensors are embedded in carbon fiber/epoxy laminates which are subjected to multiple low
velocity impacts until perforation of the laminate occurs. Applying a recently developed high-speed interrogator, the
Bragg grating sensor interrogation is demonstrated at 534 Hz over a 14.9 nm bandwidth. The measurement of the
transient response of the grating sensors during impact reveals unique spectral signatures that could not be detected
through peak-wavelength monitoring or post-impact full-spectral scanning of the sensors, including local relaxation of
the laminate.
We develop an electric field sensor array based on optical fiber interrogation with electro-optic crystals to measure high
energy electromagnetic pulses. The D-shaped optical fiber used in this work provides the platform for resonant coupling
with multiple electro-optic crystals to allow an array of sensing points on a single strand of optical fiber. Because of its
uniquely small size, this sensor array is suitable for performing electric-field analysis at multiple points within an
electronic device due to its flexibility and dielectric composition. Using Lithium Niobate and Potassium Titanyl
Phosphate crystals, the sensor array in this work is sensitive to fields as low as 100 V/m.
KEYWORDS: Fiber Bragg gratings, Sensors, Composites, Analog electronics, Optical filters, Field programmable gate arrays, Digital electronics, Data storage, Data conversion, Data communications
This paper presents a new means for collecting fiber Bragg grating (FBG) data
during drop tower measurements used to assess damage to composite structures. The
high repetition-rate collection process reveals transient features that cannot be
resolved in quasi-static measurements. The experiments made at a repetition rate of
about 500 Hz show that the detected FBG spectrum broadens for a short period of
time and relaxes quickly to a narrower static state. Furthermore, this relaxation time
increases dramatically as the strike count increases. The information gained by such
measurements will enhance the ability to characterize and distinguish failure modes
and predict remaining lifetime in composite laminate structures.
The Surface Relief Fiber Bragg Grating (SR-FBG) is a viable alternative to the thermocouple for high temperature measurements in industry. To fabricate the SR-FBG we etch a grating into the flat surface of an elliptical-core D-fiber. At high temperature (1000 °C) the optical fiber becomes brittle. To overcome brittleness we thread the fiber through a preheated 0.020 inch diameter stainless steel tube. We insert the small tube into a larger one with a diameter of 0.125 inches. The smaller tube rests on ceramic inserts to prevent contact with the large tube. The end of the D-fiber is fitted with a standard fiber optic connecter. With this packaging scheme we conduct a series of test at high temperature. The sensor is robust with no power loss or Bragg wavelength shift, even after heating for 24 consecutive hours.
KEYWORDS: Sensors, Fiber Bragg gratings, Optical filters, Field programmable gate arrays, Analog electronics, Data communications, Optical fibers, Temperature metrology, Digital filtering, Fiber lasers
A fiber Brag grating sensor interrogator has been developed which is capable of gathering vectors of information from
individual fiber Bragg gratings by capturing the full optical spectrum 3 kHz. Using a field programmable gate array
with high speed digital-to-analog converters and analog-to-digital components, plus a kilohertz rate MEMS optical filter,
the optical spectrum can be scanned at rates in excess of 10 million nanometers per second, allowing sensor sampling
rates of many kilohertz while maintaining the necessary resolution to understand sensor changes. The autonomous
system design performs all necessary detection and processing of multiple sensors and allows spectral measurements to
be exported as fast as Ethernet, USB, or RS232 devices can receive it through a memory mapped interface. The high
speed - full spectrum - fiber Bragg grating sensor interrogator enables advanced interrogation of dynamic strain and
temperature gradients along the length of a sensor, as well as the use of each sensor for multiple stimuli, such as in
temperature compensation. Two examples are described, showing interrogation of rapid laser heating in an optical fiber,
as well as complex strain effects in a beam that had an engineered defect.
This paper presents a means for creating optical fiber sensors that are capable of detecting electric fields. This
novel E-field sensor is formed as part of a contiguous fiber resulting in a flexible and small cross-section device
that could be embedded into electronic circuitry. The sensor is formed by partially etching out the core of a
D-shaped optical fiber and depositing an electro-optic polymer. Using PMMA and DR1 for proof of concept,
we demonstrate the operation of the first in-fiber hybrid waveguide electric field sensor with a sensitivity of less
than 100 V/m at a frequency of 2.9 GHz. Sensors optimized for low loss (~1dB) have an estimated E&pgr; of 222
MV/m. A sensor with an E&pgr; of 60 MV/m is also demonstrated with an insertion loss of 14.4 dB.
Advancements in portability and performance are described for a fiber optic sensor readout system capable of
monitoring wavelength-multiplexed sensors. The handheld sensor interrogator was designed to readily interface with
conglomerate sensor systems as a smart sensor node and process all spectral data within its own system in real time at 20
Hz for +/- 13 picometers resolution mode. Portability was demonstrated by flying the system on a miniature aerial
vehicle (MAV) which collected strain and temperature flight data for broadcast to a ground station. Additional
improvements upgraded the sensor measurement speed by two orders of magnitude.
A fiber-optic volatile organic compound sensor is described. The sensor consists of a single-mode D-fiber with a
polydimethylsiloxane layer. The polydimethylsiloxane layer is applied to the fiber flat after removal of a section of the
fiber's supercladding in order to increase evanescent interaction of the light with the layer. Absorbance of volatile
organic compounds alters the refractive index of the layer, resulting in a birefringent change. This change is observed as
a shift in polarization of the light carried by the fiber. Sensor response is observed for dichloromethane and acetone in
gas and liquid concentrations respectively.
KEYWORDS: Sensors, Polymers, Waveguides, Electric field sensors, Antennas, Optical fibers, High power microwaves, Modulation, Polarization, Signal detection
Aimed at test and evaluation needs on high power microwave (HPM) weapons, we describe new developments on miniature all-dielectric optical field sensors with flat RF sensing response from ~ MHz to 12 GHz, with negligible field perturbation, good sensitivity (~70 mV/(mH√z), and >100dB dynamic range. Present devices use a 20 mm long sensing region in an integrated optical (IO) waveguide Mach-Zehnder interferometer (MZI) using electrooptic (EO) polymer for the waveguide. The fiber-coupled optical transmitter/receiver utilizes common optical communication technology. The incident HPM RF field induces an instantaneous change in the index of refractive of the polymer that is converted into an optical intensity modulation in the MZI device. The poled EO polymer requires no electrodes nor metallic antennas that can distort the field under test. We characterized the frequency response and polarization sensitivity of the field sensor, and both agree well with modeling predictions. Common fabrication limitations result in devices with sensitivity to thermal drift. New sensor designs are being developed with remote bias control that also can provide self-calibration. To further reduce the sensor size and insertion loss, beneficial for array applications, an "in-fiber" field sensor is being developed. The core of a D-shaped fiber is partially removed and replaced with EO polymer. Such a device may use polarization modulation sensing, or be configured in similar MZI structures as the IO waveguide sensors.
We recently reported on a new fiber Bragg grating etched into the flat surface of a D-fiber and its potential use as a high temperature sensor. Since then we have investigated more in depth many of the characteristics that are unique due to the surface relief nature of the grating. In this paper we show that a surface relief fiber Bragg grating exhibits some significant advantages when compared to standard fiber Bragg gratings including: high temperature operation, polarization selectivity, and the ability for multi axis strain sensing. We also show the uniqueness of these gratings for bend sensing with two degrees of freedom.
In this paper, we report the development of a new bonding agent and method for the surface mounting of optical fiber
Bragg grating (FBG) strain and temperature sensors for use in high temperature environments - where there is a
presence of water, moisture, dust, susceptibility to corrosion and/or elevated temperatures up to 800°C. To ensure a
stable reflectivity response of FBGs and their survival at elevated temperatures, we are using surface relief fiber Bragg
gratings (SR-FBG). These gratings, instead of being written in the core of a photosensitive or hydrogen-loaded fiber,
are formed by introducing a periodic surface relief - through photolithographic and etching processes - in the cladding
above the core. Samples of SR-FBGs were successfully encapsulated and mounted onto metal shims. The packaged
sensors displayed a linear response with temperature and a sensitivity factor of 11pm/°C.
A new fiber sensor integrated monitor to be used in an embedded instrumentation system is proposed and its operating features are examined. The system integrates a fiber sensor together with a tunable MEMS filter, superluminescent light emitting diode and microcontroller creating a high-speed, low cost, low power smart sensor. The device has applications to a variety of fiber sensing technologies and, as an example, is integrated with a fiber Bragg grating for temperature sensing.
We present a new type of fiber Bragg grating (FBG) in which we etch the grating into the flat surface of a D-shaped optical fiber. Instead of being written in the core of the fiber, as are standard FBGs, these surface relief fiber Bragg gratings (SR-FBGs) are placed in the cladding above the core. These gratings are a viable alternative to standard FBGs for sensing applications. In this work we describe the fabrication process for etching Bragg gratings into the surface of D-fibers and demonstrate their performance as temperature sensors. We show that SR-FBGs resist much higher temperatures than standard FBGs by demonstrating their operation up to 1100 degrees Celsius.
This paper presents a technique for enhancing the temperature sensitivity of fiber sensors. The method is based on the peculiar shape and doping characteristics of a reduced cladding index fiber. A portion of the core of the fiber is removed and replaced with a material having a larger change in index with temperature than the core material it replaces. A perturbation of the sensing material results in a change in the polarization of the light at the output of the fiber. This change is detected as a change in intensity through the use of polarizers. A temperature sensitive device is presented as an example of this type of sensing device. Initial experimental results indicate that replacing the core with polymer enhances the temperature sensitivity by at least a factor of 4. The new technique is promising as a means for incorporating a variety of sensing materials into the path of a beam traveling in an optical fiber.
KEYWORDS: Solar cells, Microelectromechanical systems, Resistors, Diodes, Control systems, Solar energy, Power supplies, Temperature metrology, Device simulation, Sensors
This paper describes the design of a hybrid power system for use with autonomous MEMS and other microdevices. This hybrid power system includes energy conversion and storage along with an electronic system for managing the collection and distribution of power. It offers flexibility and longevity in a compact package. The hybrid power system couples a silicon solar cell with a microbattery specially designed for MEMS applications. We have designed a control/interface charging circuit to be compatible with a MEMS duty cycle. The design permits short pulses of 'high' power while taking care to avoid excessive charging or discharging of the battery. Charging is carefully controlled to provide a balance between acceptably small charging times and a charging profile that extends battery life. Our report describes the charging of our Ni/Zn microbatteries using solar cells. To date we have demonstrated thousands of charge/discharge cycles of a simulated MEMS duty cycle.
The need to miniaturize traditional optical devices and to incorporate them into a fiber environment has led to the study of in-fiber lasers with doped fiber cores and distributed- feedback grating cavities. This paper implements a recursive Green's function approach to model the threshold gain for distributed feedback in-fiber lasers. It is shown that the Dyson equation based model, which was originally applied to diode lasers, can also be used to model distributed feedback fiber lasers. A one-dimensional recursive Green's function process using Dyson's equation is used to obtain threshold gains and resonant frequencies for in-fiber, distributed feedback lasers. The use of Dyson's equation allows exact solutions to arbitrary accuracy for any grating shape. The recursive Green's function process allows rapid calculation of periodic or uniform structures of any size, yet does not easily yield the electric field values inside the grating structure. Also, the recursive method is easily applied to chirped gratings and phase sections between grating pairs, and can be extended to higher orders.
We have designed an input coupler to couple light into the core of a single mode optical fibers without severing the fiber. This design uses two coupling steps. The light is first diffracted into a planar waveguide constructed on the surface of the fiber using diffraction gratings. The light in the planar waveguide is then coupled to the core of the optical fiber through directional mode coupling.
Diffraction gratings have been holographically fabricated on the "flat" surface of pre-etched D-fibers. The D-fibers are single mode with cutoff wavelengths of 633, 820, and 1300 nm. The gratings range in periodicity from less than 0.9 to 1.4 μm. Maximum total free-space coupling efficiencies of up to 82% are reported with a grating periodicity of 1.4 μm over a length of about 5 to 7 mm. Guided-mode to free-space coupling is enhanced by reducing the core-to-flat distance of the D-fiber. This distance is controlled by chemically etching the fiber by means of an in situ monitored etching technique. The different etch rates between the cladding and the silica cause a recessed contour in the cladding centered over the core. This recess causes difficulties when patterning submicron photoresist gratings over the core. Photoresist gratings are fabricated holographically by means of a Lloyd's mirror arrangement. Masked etching with hydrofluoric acid writes the gratings into the cladding structure of the fiber. Incorporating diffraction gratings into optical fibers miniaturizes integrated diffraction grating devices and eliminates the need to remove a signal from its fiber environment for processing.
A method for producing a distributed feedback D fiber dye laser is presented. Existing fiber dye lasers are produced by placing a tapered single mode fiber into a dye solution. The evanescent field of a doubled YAG laser beam traveling in the fiber is used to pump the dye into fluorescence. Optical feedback and lasing action are achieved using external mirrors or a resonant fiber ring. In our scheme a segment of D fiber is etched to within a few microns of the fiber core. The etched fiber is placed in a solution of R6G dye. The etching is controlled using an in situ monitoring technique we have developed. An argon ion laser beam is focused into the fiber. Because of the small core size of the D fiber we use, there is sufficient energy in the evanescent field to cause the dye to be fluorescent. Diffraction gratings are produced generated by a holographic technique. We create diffraction gratings with periods of less than .3 (mu) using this technique. A miniature fiber dye laser could provide a compact source for short laser pulses for use in spectroscopy and communications.
This paper presents a novel technique to improve the design and implementation of in-fiber components by providing real
time control of cladding removal by either polishing or etching. Cladding removal allows interaction between external
materials and devices, and the light propagating in the fiber.
Monitoring of the cladding removal process is achieved by observing the output from a section of fiber into which laser
light has been focused. Resulting output graphs show that each specific fiber produces characteristic oscillations dependent
on the number of modes propagating, the thickness of the cladding, the birefringence of the fiber, and the initial
polarization state of the light. These oscillations result from changes in the effective indices of refraction of different
modes as the cladding is removed.
Electron micrographs of etched fiber surfaces show that unless proper cleaning and handling techniques are followed, the
etched surface is scarred and pitted, leaving a poor quality substrate for device applications. However, if careful cleaning
techniques and buffered hydrofluonc acid are used, the presence of these defects is drastically reduced and the resulting surface
is smooth on a sub-micron scale.
In order to understand better the characteristics of etched or polished fibers we have extended existing theoretical models
which predict the effect of cladding removal on fiber birefnngence. Corroboration and use of these models allow more
reliable monitoring and control of variables in the etching or polishing process such as cladding thickness, fiber alignment,
acid concentration and temperature, and indices ofrefraction from fiber to fiber.
Using the techniques presented in this paper, diffraction gratings are fabricated in etched D-type fibers. Other possible
applications for this work include the production of variable wave plates, mode discriminators, polarizers, and the
placement of detection and signal conditioning devices directly on the surface of a fiber.
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