A long period grating (LPG) operating in the visible wavelength range functionalised with sensitive dyes is reported. Two different sensing mechanisms transmission based, using intensity ratio; and refractive index change based, using the PMTP attenuation bands shift are presented. The visible range LPG’s with phase matching turning point (PMTP) ~700 nm was fabricated using amplitude mask laser inscribing approach on a hydrogen loaded SM600 fibre. Ammonia sensitive thin film based on diazonium resin (DAR) and tetrakis-(4-sulfophenyl)porphine (TSPP) dye was deposited via layer-by-layer deposition on LPG fibre and glass substrate. Glass substrate coated by DAR-TSPP was used to calculate the complex refractive index (RI) difference. The response of the visible LPG was compared to an infrared LPG with a same coating.
Optical fibre sensing is a platform technology for applications in biomedical and environmental monitoring. Fibre Bragg Gratings can be used to monitor parameters such as pressure and temperature. Alternatively, coating the fibres with functional layers, either at the tip of the fibre, on a U-shaped fibre, or a long period grating enables sensing of analytes in liquids and gases. This paper describes the application of optical fibre sensing techniques during mechanical ventilation via an endotracheal tube in critical care. Functional coatings on the fibres are used to monitor humidity of inspired air and can be used to monitor other analytes.
An array of three long period gratings (LPGs) fabricated in a single optical fibre and multiplexed in the wavelength domain was used to measure simultaneously temperature, relative humidity (RH) and volatile organic compounds (VOCs). Each LPG sensor was designed to optimize its response to a desired measurand. The LPGs were fabricated with periods such that they operated at or near the phase matching turning point. The sensors were calibrated in the laboratory and the simultaneous measurement of the key indoor air quality parameters was undertaken in laboratory and office environments. It was demonstrated successfully that the data produced by the LPG sensor array under real conditions was in a good agreement with that produced by commercially available sensors. Further, the potential application of fibre optic sensors for VOCs detection at high levels has been demonstrated.
Optical fibres functionalised with chemically sensitive layers offer a powerful platform for the development of sensing systems with a wide range of potential applications, ranging from the monitoring of industrial processes to healthcare. Sensors based upon optical fibres to probe the optical characteristics of nanomaterials that exhibit changes in their optical properties upon exposure to targeted chemical species are particularly attractive, due to their potential high sensitivity, selectivity, the ready ability to multiplex arrays of sensors, and the prospect for remote sensing. This paper provides examples of the application of optical fibres sensors to improve the functionality of the medical devices, for biomarker detection and drug monitoring, and draws upon work that has been conducted as collaboration between teams at the Universities of Kitakyushu, Cranfield and Nottingham.
The development of an ammonia sensor, formed by the deposition of a functionalised titanium dioxide film onto a tapered optical fibre is presented. The titanium dioxide coating allows the coupling of light from the fundamental core mode to a lossy mode supported by the coating, thus creating lossy mode resonance (LMR) in the transmission spectrum. The porphyrin compound that was used to functionalise the coating was removed from the titanium dioxide coating upon exposure to ammonia, causing a change in the refractive index of the coating and a concomitant shift in the central wavelength of the lossy mode resonance. Concentrations of ammonia as small as 1ppm was detected with a response time of less than 1min.
An optical fibre long period grating (LPG) coated with an inorganic molecularly imprinted thin film based on TiO2 was used to measure in real time the photodecomposition of an organic target compound. The TiO2 film was deposited onto the LPG using the aqueous liquid phase deposition method and its photo-catalytic properties were employed to decompose a porphyrin. The principle of operation is based on the measurements of the refractive index (RI) change of the TiO2 thin film at the binding and removal of the imprinted organic compound.
A Long period grating (LPG) with a period of 111 μm was fabricated in the highly birefringent (Hi-Bi) optical fibre with the aim of developing a sensor for chirality measurements. The LPG sensor was exposed to different concentrations of glucose D(+) and fructose D(-) in water, which have similar structures but exhibit opposite optical rotations, i.e. chirality. The behaviour of the resonance bands of the submodes corresponding to the two orthogonal polarization states was different depending on the chirality of the compound, thus allowing discrimination between two compounds.
A layer-by-layer (LbL) approach was used for the deposition of coatings with a nano-meter thickness onto a multimode optical fibre that was bent into a U-shape with the aim of demonstrating a fibre-optic ammonia sensor. The film was composed of alternate layers of tetrakis(4-sulfophenyl)porphine, TSPP, and poly(diallyldimethylammonium chloride), PDDA, deposited using the LbL electrostatic self-assembly process. Exposure of the assembled film to ammonia induced a change in its absorption spectrum, which could be observed in the transmission spectrum of the coated U-shaped optical fibre. The sensor showed a linear sensitivity (77.7 mV/ppm) to ammonia in the concentration range 1–100 ppm.
An evanescent-wave optical fibre sensor modified with tetrakis(4-sulfophenyl)porphine (TSPP) and poly(allylamine hydrochloride) (PAH) bilayers using an layer-by-layer (LbL) approach was tested to measure the gas emitted from human skin. Optical intensity changes at different wavelengths in the transmission spectrum of the porphyrin-based film were induced by the human skin gas and measured as sensor response. Influence of relative humidity, which can be a major interference to sensor response, was significantly different when compared to the influence of skin emanations. Responses of the current optical sensor system could be considered as composite sensor array, where different optical wavelengths act as channels that have selective response to specific volatile compounds. Data obtained from the sensor system was analyzed through principal component analysis (PCA). This approach enabled to distinguish skin odors of different people and their altered physiological conditions after alcohol consumption.
The development of an evanescent wave optical fibre (EWOF) sensor modified with an organic-inorganic hybrid nanoporous thin film for alcohol vapor detection was demonstrated. The optical fibre with a core diameter of 200 μm was bent into U-shape probe optic fibre to enhance the penetation depth of light transferred into the evanescent filed. The bended region of the fibre was modified with a multilayered thin film of poly(allyamine hydrochloride) and silica nanoparticels, (PAH/SiO2)n, by a layer-by-layer (LbL) film deposition technique, followed by infusion of tetrakis(4- sulfophenyl)porphine, TPPS. The mesoporous film structure showed high sensitivity and selectivity to methanol by the aid of the TPPS infused inside the film. The optical sensor response was reversible and reproducible over many times of exposures to analytes, which was caused by the change in refractive index (RI) of the film.
Two highly sensitive ammonia sensors, formed by depositing coatings composed of titanium dioxide (TiO2) onto the cladding of an optical fibre sensing platform, are evaluated. A long period grating (LPG) of period 111 μm was fabricated in the core of an optical fibre so that the LPG operates at or near the phase matching turning point (PMTP). The first coating that was investigated was composed of TiO2 nanoparticles deposited by liquid phase deposition. The sensor showed high sensitivity and allowed low concentrations of ammonia in water (0.01 ppm) to be detected with a response time of less than 60 sec. The second coating was composed of TiO2 with subsequent layers of poly (allyamine hydrochloride) (PAH), and SiO2 nanospheres infused with a sensitive element composed of porphine. The ammonia adsorption to the porphine compound led to the changes in the LPG’s transmission spectrum and allowed 0.1 ppm of ammonia in water to be detected with a response time of less than 60 sec.
The response to temperature and refractive index (RI) of cascaded long period gratings operating at or near the phase matching turning point was studied. Temperature- and RI-induced changes of the phase of the channelled spectrum and wavelength shift of the long period grating’s resonance band envelope were observed for two conditions; when the length of fibre separating the long period gratings was perturbed and when the whole length of the device was perturbed. It is shown that when the central section of the device is perturbed the phase of the channelled spectrum changes and the envelope remains fixed, while when the entire device is perturbed the phase and central wavelength of the envelope shift at the same rate. Thus measurement of changes in the channelled spectrum with respect to the centre of the resonance band envelope offers a means for developing sensors whose response is compensated for temperature and RI.
A long period grating (LPG) modified with a mesoporous film infused with a functional compound, calix[4]arene, was employed for the detection of volatile organic compounds (VOCs). The mesoporous film consisted of an inorganic part, of SiO2 nanoparticles (NPs) along with an organic moiety of poly(allylamine hydrochloride) polycation PAH, which was finally infused with functional compound, p-sulphanatocalix[4]arene (CA[4]). The LPG sensor was designed to operate at the phase matching turning point to provide the highest sensitivity. The sensing mechanism is based on the measurement of the refractive index (RI) change induced by the complexion of the VOCs with calix[4]arene (CA). The LPG modified with 5 cycles of (SiO2 NPs/PAH)5PAA responded to exposure to chloroform and benzene vapours. The sensitivity to humidity as an interfering parameter was also investigated.
A fibre optic long period grating (LPG) with an nano-assembled mesoporous coating of alternate layers of poly
(allylamine hydrochloride) (PAH) and SiO2 nanospheres was used for the development of a fibre-optic refractometer.
PAH/SiO2 films of different thickness have been deposited onto an LPG in order to study the effect of the film thickness
on sensor performance. The device showed a sensitivity of 1927 nm/RIU over a RI range of 1.3233-1.4906.
The transmission spectrum of a fibre optic long period grating (LPG) coated with a porous multilayer coating of
thickness of order 400 nm formed from silica nanospheres is shown to exhibit a strong sensitivity to the infusion of a
functional, chemically sensitive material into the coating. Subsequently, the transmission spectrum of the LPG
shows sensitivity to changes in the properties of the functional material when exposed to a particular chemical
species in an aqueous solution. The operation of such a device as an ammonia sensor is demonstrated, exhibiting 1
ppm sensitivity. The sensing mechanisms are discussed.
The bacteriorhodopsin film in gelatin matrixes which are used as sensitive elements of integrated optic and fibre-optic
sensors of various vapor and gases components will not be able to carry out the chemical control of aqueous solutions. In
the given paper the results of technological development of obtaining the bacteriorhodopsin (bR) films in a sol-gel matrix
are represented. The films are obtained in a broad thickness range (from 0.5 to 20 microns) with various bR
concentrations and photosensitize additives. The optimal technological conditions of obtaining of uniform films with
given optical parameters are defined. The surface morphology and cross section of the obtained films was studied using
an AFM and SEM. The films have a reasonable surface roughness (~ 100 nm) and a uniform distribution of the purple
membrane fragments in the nanostructured sol-gel glass matrix along the films surface and thickness. The transmission
spectrums have the characteristic for bR the absorption band, the value of which depends on bR concentration and
technological features of the films deposition. The investigated photosensitive properties of the obtained films and
influence on them of chemical components of aqueous solutions, allow recommending the thin bR films in sol-gel
matrixes for creation of planar waveguides in the role of components of the chemical sensors of liquid solutions.
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