The ultrasonic field generated by a Micro Intereferometric Acoustic Lens used for high precision Rayleigh wave velocity
measurements is modeled by the recently developed mesh-free technique called Distributed Point Source Method
(DPSM). The field generated by the three individual ultrasonic transducer elements forming the micro intereferometric
acoustic lens are computed and compared with experimental measurements. Qualitative agreement between the
theoretical and experimental results is observed; both results show converging beams up to the focal point and then the
beams diverge. However, some of the minute detailed features in the generated ultrasonic field could only be observed in
the computed results. Effects of non-uniform surface of the transducer and its contribution to the non-uniform ultrasonic
source strength are investigated to understand and optimize the acoustic lens for localized quantitative elastic property
measurements.
Light-weight and multiplexable, Fiber Bragg Grating (FBG) optical sensors allow the integration of many sensors along
a single electrically passive and electromagnetic interference immune optical fiber. In this paper, we describe the use of
multiple FBGs for monitoring and early stage detection of fatigue crack growth. We provide experimental results over a
range of temperatures for fatigue crack monitoring in titanium alloy specimens subjected to periodic loading for tens of
thousands of cycles and demonstrate detection of early-stage fatigue crack extension.
Continuous real time structural health monitoring will be a requirement for future space launch missions. Reusable metallic cryotanks manufactured using Friction Stir Welding (FSW) technology for multiple missions, demands weld and microstructural integrity. The FS weld contains multiple interfaces and a variety of microstructures. To develop NDE-based health monitoring capability which detects damage and monitors the progression of damage, in the
presence of these microstructural inhomogeneities, is a challenging task. Most structural health monitoring techniques are based on acoustic wave propagation. To design and develop efficient and optimized health monitoring capability based on acoustics, it is necessary to incorporate local elastic property variations that arise due to differences in the weld microstructure. These local elastic property changes across FSW regions have been measured using a focused acoustic beam. Measurements across the weld line show variations with a maximum change of 1% in the sound velocities. Macroscopic measurements of velocity of surface acoustic waves propagating across and also parallel the weld line in a large plate show significant variation. Experimental results of local and macroscopic sound velocity measurements from the changing microstructure along with their impact on the design of structural health monitoring system are discussed.
The objectives of this research were to (1) understand the impact of vibration on electronic components under ultrasound excitation; (2) model the thermal profile presented under vibration stress; and (3) predict stress level given a thermal profile of an electronic component. Research tasks included: (1) retrofit of current ultrasonic/infrared nondestructive testing system with sensory devices for temperature readings; (2) design of software tool to process images acquired from the ultrasonic/infrared system; (3) developing hypotheses and conducting experiments; and (4) modeling and evaluation of electronic vibration stress levels using a neural network model. Results suggest that (1) an ultrasonic/infrared system can be used to mimic short burst high vibration loads for electronics components; (2) temperature readings for electronic components under vibration stress are consistent and repeatable; (3) as stress load and excitation time increase, temperature differences also increase; (4) components that are subjected to a relatively high pre-stress load, followed by a normal operating load, have a higher heating rate and lower cooling rate. These findings are based on grayscale changes in images captured during experimentation. Discriminating variables and a neural network model were designed to predict stress levels given temperature and/or grayscale readings. Preliminary results suggest a 15.3% error when using grayscale change rate and 12.8% error when using average heating rate within the neural network model. Data were obtained from a high stress point (the corner) of the chip.
The paper will give a brief overview on techniques that have been developed or are in progress for high resolution characterization of materials at the Center for Materials Diagnostics, University of Dayton. Acoustic microscopy is used to characterize coating systems and localized defects like corrosion pits. Significantly higher resolution is provided by Ultrasonic force microscopy, which allows the imaging of elastic inhomogenities in materials for example, studying nano-grain structures in copper films and nano precipates in aluminum alloys. Several optical high-resolution techniques have been developed or are in progress. These include interferometric imaging of the response of acoustic MEMS transducers, imaging of acoustic wave structures and early detection of crack initiation. Microellipsometric and NSOM imaging techniques are in development for imaging of surface structures significantly smaller than the optical wavelength. White light interference microscopy is frequently used to characterize surface topography with nanometer resolution for example, to quantify fretting damage or stress fields in front of fractures.
Interactive forces between particles play an important role in diverse fields of science and technology. With the advent of Atomic Force Microscopy, investigation of interactive forces has been extended to micro and nano-scale particles with new applications. These forces are known to vary with the dimension of the particles and with the different levels of humidity. In the present paper we have investigated the interactive forces between a spherical particle probes of eutectic BaF2-CaF2 and a single crystal surface of CaF2 using an Atomic Force Microscope. The effect of humidity on the interactive forces has been examined by analyzing the force-displacement curves at controlled levels of humidity. Force distance curves obtained with two different probes, 5 μm and 17 μm in diameter, and have been examined to investigate the effect of probe dimensions. The results are discussed in view of the application of eutectic BaF2-CaF2 particles in self-lubricating coatings for aerospace applications.
KEYWORDS: Copper, Atomic force microscopy, Ultrasonics, Signal detection, Thin films, Acoustics, Atomic force microscope, Microscopes, Ion beams, Manufacturing
The material being used to construct interconnects in microelectronic circuitry is changing as developers switch from aluminum alloys to copper in order to make increasing smaller circuit wires. The performance of copper interconnects can be adversely affected by electromigration, precipitation formation, and changes in the grain microstructure of the wire. There is a need for characterization methods that can allow examination of the interconnects/wires and their grain structure in the nanometer range. One of the most powerful tools that are routinely used for characterization of nanostructured materials is the Atomic Force Microscope. The combination of AFM with ultrasonics (UFM) allows a near field acoustic microscopic image to be generated. By having the AFM tip detect the ultrasonic signal, the lateral resolution limitation of the acoustic wavelength that occurs in conventional acoustic microscopy can be overcome so that imaging with nanometer resolution is possible. In this paper, we present a qualitative comparison of AFM-UFM images on different forms of copper nanograins from two sources namely, ion beam deposited thin films samples containing polycrystalline sections and the aligned copper grains in the wires of an actual working microelectronic device. Images of the nanometer grain structure will be presented. Explanations for the image differences between samples will be discussed and possible applications are suggested.
One of the most critical aspects of developing and optimizing capacitive micro-machined transducer systems involves the introduction of appropriate stress levels in the membrane structures during the manufacturing process. Subtle variations in the elastic modulus levels and mechanical coupling can dramatically alter the dynamic vibratory response of the MEMS for ultrasonic applications. In this effort, two different optical interferometric NDE approaches were used to evaluate the static and dynamic characteristics of individual MEMS elements in an ultrasonic transducer array system for variations of applied stress. The interferometric techniques provided a detailed microscopic characterization of the physical motions and local microscopic positions of the MEMS transducer membranes. It was found that the flexural response levels of individual MEMS membrane structures due to increased electrostatic forces was directly coupled to the dynamic response of the micro-transducer, and could potentially be used for optimizing the efficiency and dynamic motion extent of the MEMS transducer array. The optical interferometric techniques both proved to be valuable micro-NDE characterization tools, and were perfectly suited for characterizing the dynamic and static responses of the MEMS ultrasonic transducer systems.
A detailed micro-characterization of a MEMS ultrasonic transducer was done using a scanning heterodyne interferometry technique. Both temporal and spatial measurements were made of the out-of-plane displacement levels of the transducer under normal operating conditions. Spatial resolution levels approaching the optical diffraction limit of 1 mm were achieved, which allowed characterizations of individual micro-transducer elements to be made. The resonance characteristics of individual transducer membranes were evaluated for drive frequencies between 1 MHz and 7 MHz. Although the majority of transducer elements showed nearly identical frequency response characteristics, several of the MEMS elements showed evidence of shifted resonance response features, which dramatically altered their performance level. Displacement levels in excess of 100 nm were observed for peak DC and AC drive voltage input levels. Time-sequenced measurements of the oscillating MEMS structures were also studied, and showed phase-reversal effects near the edges of transducer membranes. The scanning interferometry technique proved to be a very useful NDE tool for micro-characterization, and provided a wealth of information regarding the micro-features of the MEMS ultrasonic transducer which are currently not available with any other advanced NDE.
The quest for technical advancements is leading scientists to study how devices interact on the nanometer scale. There is a growing need for material characterization techniques, which can image, detect damage/changes, and characterize the material and its engineered structures in the nanometer region. One of the most powerful tools that are routinely used for characterization of nanostructured materials is Atomic Force Microscopy. The Atomic Force Microscope (AFM) provides a 3 dimensional surface topographic image of a sample. When imaging a sample's surface, a 10-micron or smaller area maybe fairly flat so that the AFM image provides very little detail and contrast even though the overall sample surface is quite rough. Ultrasonic Force Microscopy (UFM) has been developed in order to improve the image contrast on flat areas of interest where the AFM topography images are limited in contrast. The combination of AFM-UFM allows a near field acoustic microscopic image to be generated. The AFM tip is used to detect the ultrasonic waves and overcomes the lateral resolution limit of the acoustic wavelength that occurs in acoustic microscopy. By using the elastic changes under the AFM tip, an image of much greater detail than the AFM topography can be generated. Nondestructive evaluation and material characterization on ceramic and copper applications in which the addition of UFM has greatly improved upon the AFM images is presented.
The goal of this work is to develop a multi-sensor nondestructive evaluation (NDE) approach to characterize aluminum alloy airframe structures under polymeric corrosion protective coatings. Two main efforts are highly relevant: (1) studying different degradation processes in the polymers to estimate the coating performance in service; and (2) detecting and quantifying early stages of corrosion beneath an intact coating. To address these tasks we employed acoustic and thermographic NDE techniques, especially Scanning Acoustic Microscopy and Fan Thermography. SAM can be utilized to map either coating or interface properties (C-scans). The method revealed potential to determine the curing quality of the coatings. It was also possible to detect small corrosion pits under delaminated areas. Furthermore, we evaluated the reflections of surface waves, which are generated and detected by the same probe. This provided an additional tool to examine the substrate/coating interface. Thermography was applied to detect corrosion under the coatings and sites of delamination. Fan Thermography (hot air heating) made it possible, to observe sites of decreasing adhesion over longer time periods. Both acoustic and thermographic results were correlated to electrochemical mapping of corrosion activity which was obtained by Scanning Vibration Electrode Technique (SVET).
A thermal imaging NDE method has been developed for nondestructive characterization of early stages of fatigue damage. The method is based on evaluation of the thermal effects induced in a material by a short-term mechanical loading. The mechanical loading causes in addition to thermoelastic temperature change, an increase due to heat dissipation that depends upon the microstructure of the material in a characteristic manner. The origin of this heat dissipation is the mechanical damping process. Utilizing the initial temperature rise due to a short-term mechanical loading, the dissipated energy per cycle was evaluated as a thermal parameter. This new thermal NDE parameter allows a quantitative characterization of the mechanical hysteresis, without the need for calibration to eliminate influences of thermal boundary conditions. The measurement of the thermal NDE parameters has been performed on Ti-6Al-4V dog-bone specimens, fatigued in low cycle fatigue (LCF) as well as in high cycle fatigue (HCF) experiments. Characteristic dependence of the NDE parameters on the already accumulated fatigue damage has been observed. The advantage of the thermal method is the applicability to components under service conditions because of simplicity, rapid measurements (a few seconds) and the ability of locally resolved evaluations.
This paper describes the initial phase of the development of a nondestructive, multi-sensor approach for detecting, quantifying and monitoring degradation of organic coatings applied to aircraft aluminum frame structures. Two ultrasonic techniques are discussed: the well-established pulse/echo scanning acoustic microscopy, employing a 200 MHz transducer with a focusing lens and, as a proposed alternative, continuous acoustic wave measurements with a probe in contact to the sample. The High spatial and depth resolution of scanning acoustic microscopy provides the possibility to obtain information about coating inhomogeneities, e.g. density variations due to non uniform curing of the polymeric coating or interface voids, e.g. sites of weak adhesion. This is achieved by altering the probe/sample-distance, i.e. changing the focus point of the lens. Since the echoes from the topsurface and the interface can be separated, thickness measurements are possible, too. However, only down to a thickness of 10 - 15 micrometer. Here, continuous acoustic wave measurements can be considered to be a good alternative for acoustic measurements in the pulsed regime. The method enables very accurate thickness evaluation, but can not reach the excellent lateral resolution of scanning acoustic microscopy.
An in-situ technique to measure sound velocity, ultrasonic attenuation and acoustic nonlinear property has been developed for characterization and early detection of fatigue damage in aerospace materials. For this purpose we have developed a computer software and measurement technique including hardware for the automation of the measurement. New transducer holder and special grips are designed. The automation has allowed us to test the long-term stability of the electronics over a period of time and so proof of the linearity of the system. Real-time monitoring of the material nonlinearity has been performed on dog-bone specimens from zero fatigue all the way to the final fracture under low-cycle fatigue test condition (LCF) and high-cycle test condition (HCF). Real-time health monitoring of the material can greatly contribute to the understanding of material behavior under cyclic loading. Interpretation of the results show that correlation exist between the slope of the curve described by the material nonlinearity and the life of the component. This new methodology was developed with an objective to predict the initiation of fatigue microcracks, and to detect, in-situ fatigue crack initiation as well as to quantify early stages of fatigue damage.
An in-situ technique to measure sound velocity, ultrasonic attenuation and acoustic nonlinear property has been developed for characterization and early detection of fatigue damage in aerospace materials. A previous experiment using the f-2f technique on Ti-6Al-4V dog bone specimen fatigued at different stage of fatigue has shown that the material nonlinearity exhibit large change compared to the other ultrasonic parameter. Real-time monitoring of the nonlinearity may be a future tool to characterize early fatigue damage in the material. For this purpose we have developed a computer software and measurement technique including hardware for the automation of the measurement. New transducer holder and special grips are designed. The automation has allowed us to test the long-term stability of the electronics over a period of time and so proof of the linearity of the system. For the first time, a real-time experiment has been performed on a dog-bone specimen from zero fatigue al the way to the final fracture.
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