In this paper we present principles of NDE and structural health monitoring (SHM) of rockbolts using ultrasonic guided waves. Specialized techniques and instruments are presented that apply low frequency ultrasound to investigate bolts status, especially its load imposed by movements of the surrounding rock. Guided waves (GW) that propagate in real rockbolts are dispersive and multimodal. The technique based on the use of modal resonances in bolts is presented. In this technique an application tailored ultrasound probe is employed that transmits the high-energy, low frequency (below 100kHz) guided waves and is capable of receiving weak echoes reflected from the bolt-end. The received end-echoes are amplified and sent back in the sing-around mode. The echo, related to the selected guided wave mode, will generate resonant oscillations with frequency that depends on the velocity of that wave mode, bolt's length and also, in result of the acoustoelastic effect, its load. The latter effect can be used for the evaluation of the load imposed on the bolt by means of the sing-around setup that converts wave velocity to the frequency of self-oscillations. In practical applications the frequency band has to be limited by a suitable band-pass filter to avoid frequency jumps due to the presence of resonances generated by other wave modes. Simulation results are presented that facilitate the choice of the frequency band where the acoustoelastic effect is significant and the frequency jumps can be minimized.
The purpose of this paper is to demonstrate application of the time-frequency analysis (TFA) for processing guided ultrasonic waves measured by means of a specially designed ultrasonic rock bolt tester during nondestructive inspection of rock bolts. A pulse-echo method is adopted in the instrument as the most appropriate for the in-field applications. This paper presents methods for analysis of the measured guided ultrasonic waves using the TFA. The proposed TFA methodology is first demonstrated on the simulated signals and then verified using the experimental signals gathered from grouted prepared rock bolts provided with artificial defects simulating grout discontinuities.
The application of guided waves using surface-bonded piezoceramic transducers for nondestructive testing (NDT) and Structural Health Monitoring (SHM) have shown great potential. However, due to difficulty in identification of individual wave modes resulting from their dispersive and multi-modal nature, selective mode excitement methods are highly desired.
The presented work focuses on an optimization-based approach to design of a piezoelectric transducer for selective guided waves generation. The concept of the presented framework involves a Finite Element Method (FEM) model in the optimization process. The material of the transducer is optimized in topological sense with the aim of tuning piezoelectric properties for actuation of specific guided wave modes.
KEYWORDS: Structural health monitoring, Transducers, Ultrasonography, Mechanical engineering, Design for manufacturability, Electrodes, Microsoft Foundation Class Library, Ferroelectric materials, Wave plates, Composites, Epoxies, Finite element methods, Semiconducting wafers
IDTs have the potential of increasing the versatility of SHM systems by their multiple capabilities. Migration of the IDT technology in SHM systems and devices is reviewed in this paper. A summary review of different types of IDTs is presented and their salient features are presented in terms of applicability in the Lamb wave based SHM systems. Comprehensive review is provided concerning the implementation of IDT capabilities towards the development of SHM systems. Experimental results obtained with prototype IDTs are provided for illustration. Finally, future development directions of the IDTs dedicated to SHM systems are outlined.
Interpretation of Lamb waves signals can rise serious difficulties due to their multi-modal nature. Different modes propagating with different velocities can be misleading with damage reflected components. As a solution to this problem we propose a technique capable of modes separation based on a polarization filter. Both S0 and A0 Lamb modes exhibit elliptical polarization, however, their polarization parameters, i.e. the ratios of in-plane and out-of-plane displacements and phase-shifts between these components are different. Furthermore, these parameters can be considered constant in a narrow frequency band. Therefore, if the vertical and horizontal components of the wave motion are available, it is possible to apply signal processing technique referred to as oblique polarization filter. This operation is based on phase-shifts and amplifications of the in- and out-of-plane components, which results in orthogonal, linearly polarized A0 and S0 waves signals. In this paper the proposed technique will be illustrated using both numerical simulations and experimental data. The simulations of wave propagation were performed using local interaction simulation approach (LISA) assuming isotropic material. The experiments were performed using 3D laser scanning Doppler vibrometer that allowed to capture the in-plane and out-of-plane wave components.
KEYWORDS: Structural health monitoring, Signal processing, Temperature metrology, Transducers, Data fusion, Wave propagation, Sensors, Databases, Distributed interactive simulations, Environmental sensing
Temperature variations affect Lamb wave propagation and therefore in this way they can severely limit application of baseline signals in SHM systems. Various techniques are proposed in the paper to solve this problem. New method based on an interpretation of multiple signals acquired in distinct points of the structure is introduced and compared with other widely used approaches. Data fusion is used to merge a number of methods into one with a substantially increased efficiency.
2D ultrasonic arrays in Lamb wave based SHM systems can operate in the phased array (PA) or synthetic focusing (SF) mode. In the real-time PA approach, multiple electronically delayed signals excite transmitting elements to form the desired wave-front, whereas receiving elements are used to sense scattered waves. Due to that, the PA mode requires multi channeled hardware and multiple excitations at numerous azimuths to scan the inspected region of interest. To the contrary, the SF mode, assumes a single element excitation of subsequent transmitters and off-line processing of the acquired data. In the simplest implementation of the SF technique, a single multiplexed input and output channels are required, which results in significant hardware simplification.
Performance of a 2D imaging array depends on many parameters, such as, its topology, number of its transducers and their spacing in terms of wavelength as well as the type of weighting function (apodization). Moreover, it is possible to use sparse arrays, which means that not all array elements are used for transmitting and/ or receiving.
In this paper the co-array concept is applied to facilitate the synthesis process of an array's aperture used in the multistatic synthetic focusing approach in Lamb waves-based imaging systems. In the coherent imaging, performed in the transmit/receive mode, the sum co-array is a morphological convolution of the transmit/receive sub-arrays. It can be calculated as the set of sums of the individual elements' locations in the sub-arrays used for imaging.
The coarray framework will be presented here using two different array topologies, aID uniform linear array and a cross-shaped array that will result in a square coarray. The approach will be discussed in terms of array patterns and beam patterns of the resulting imaging systems. Both, theoretical and experimental results will be given.
Monitoring structural integrity of large planar structures that aims at detecting and localizing impact or damage at any point of the structure requires normally a relatively dense network of uniformly distributed ultrasonic sensors. 2-D ultrasonic phased arrays, due to their beam-steering capability and all azimuth angle coverage are a very promising tool for structural health monitoring (SHM) of plate-like structures using Lamb waves (LW). Linear phased arrays that have been proposed for that purpose, produce mirrored image characterized by azimuth dependent resolution, which prevents unequivocal damage localization. 2D arrays do not have this drawback and they are even capable of mode selectivity when generating and receiving LWs. Performance of 2D arrays depends on their topology as well as the number of elements (transducers) used and their spacing in terms of wavelength. In this paper we propose a consistent methodology for three-step: theoretical, numerical and experimental investigation of a diversity of 2D array topologies in SHM applications. In the first step, the theoretical evaluation is performed using frequency-dependent structure transfer function (STF). STF that defines linear propagation of different LWs modes through the dispersive medium enables theoretical investigation of the particular array performance for a predefined tone-burst excitation signal. A dedicated software tool has been developed for the numerical evaluation of 2D array directional characteristics (beampattern) in a specific structure. The simulations are performed using local interaction simulation
approach (LISA), implemented using NVIDIA CUDA graphical computation unit (GPU), which enables time-efficient
3D simulations of LWs propagation. Beampatterns of a 2D array can be to some extend evaluated analytically and using numerical simulations; in most cases, however, they require experimental verification. Using scanning laser vibrometer is proposed for that purpose, in a setup where LWs, excited by PZT transmitters of the investigated array are sensed in multiple points corresponding to the locations of the 2D array receiving elements. A virtual receiving sub-array is created in this way and the performance of various array architectures in the reception mode can be evaluated experimentally without the need of physical prototype; a change of topology requires only straightforward modification of the measurement points distribution at the tested structure. For illustration, beampatterns of three symmetrical 2D topologies, i.e., circular, star-shaped and spiralshaped, will be examined in the paper and compared in terms of their beam-width and side-lobes level. The effect of apodization applied to the array elements will be also investigated.
In this paper we present a new methodology for theoretical, numerical and experimental investigations of various
2D arrays' topologies. The theoretical evaluation is performed using frequency-dependent structure transfer
function that affects propagation of Lamb waves (LWs) through the dispersive medium and enables investigation
of the arrays' performance for a defined excitation signal. The numerical simulations are conducted using
local interaction simulation approach (LISA) implemented on the NVIDIA R CUDA R graphical processing unit
(GPU), which considerably accelerates 3D simulations of LWs propagation in a short time period. Finally,
scanning laser vibrometer is used to sense the LWs excited by PZT transducers, in multiple points corresponding
to the locations of the 2D array elements. In this way performance of various array architectures in the reception
mode can be evaluated experimentally without the need of physical prototype - a change of topology requires
only straightforward modification of the measurement points' distribution at the tested plate.
KEYWORDS: Phased arrays, Smoothing, Transducers, Structural health monitoring, Transmitters, Wave sensors, Ultrasonics, Dispersion, Electronic filtering, Signal to noise ratio
Monitoring structural integrity of large planar structures requires normally a relatively dense network of uniformly
distributed ultrasonic sensors. A 2-D ultrasonic phased array with all azimuth angle coverage would be extremely
useful for the structural health monitoring (SHM) of such structures. Known techniques for estimating direction
of arriving (DOA) waves cannot efficiently cope with dispersive and multimodal Lamb waves (LWs). In the
paper we propose an adaptive spectral estimation technique capable of handling broadband LWs sensed by 2-D
arrays, the modified Capon method. Performance of the technique is evaluated using simulated multiple-mode
LWs, and verified using experimental data.
Phased array with all-azimuth angle coverage would be extremely useful in structural health monitoring (SHM)
of planar structures. One method to achieve the 360° coverage is to use uniform circular arrays (UCAs). In
this paper we present the concept of UCA adapted for SHM applications. We start from a brief presentation
of UCA beamformers based on the principle of phase mode excitation. UCA performance is illustrated by the
results of beamformer simulations performed for the narrowband and wideband ultrasonic signals. Preliminary
experimental results obtained with UCA used for the reception of ultrasonic signals propagating in an aluminum
plate are also presented.
Composite structures have become a significant part of modern lightweight aircrafts. Contrary to the aluminum
panels such structures are susceptible to catastrophic failure without noticeable forewarnings. One possible way
of preventing catastrophic failures is integrating health monitoring systems in the critical composite structures
of the aircraft. Ultrasonic resonance inspection is especially suitable for the inspection of multilayered composite
structures. In our previous works we have described the principle of narrow-band ultrasonic spectroscopy (NBUS), where the surface of an inspected structure is scanned with a resonant transducer whose frequency response is monitored in a narrow frequency band. It has been proven that the NBUS method is capable of detecting both artificial disbonds and real impact defects in carbon fiber composites. In this paper we present design guidelines for optimizing narrow-band electromechanical impedance (NBE/MI) sensors that are to be integrated with a monitored composite structure. The NBE/MI sensor takes the form of a piezoelectric element bonded to the monitored structure. Parameter variations in the inspected structure result in the respective variations of the electrical impedance (admittance) of the piezoelectric sensor. Relation between the state of the inspected structure and the sensor's admittance is estimated using the network representation. Conclusions concerning the proper choice of the operating frequencies suitable for various structures are presented.
Recently, an increased need for effective NDE tools for layered structures has been observed with the increased use of bonded structures (e.g. GLARE) and carbon fiber reinforced panels (CFRP) in modern aircraft constructions. NDE of multilayered airspace structures can be performed using ultrasonic spectroscopy which makes use of the information in the frequency domain generated due to the constructive and destructive interference of elastic waves. The paper presents a novel narrowband ultrasonic spectroscopy (NBS) technique which utilizes specially designed resonance transducers with carefully selected narrow frequency bands. The NBS is based on sensing electrical impedance of the piezoelectric transducer in the vicinity of its resonance. The theoretical model which enables predicting the resonance frequencies and modal shapes of the thickness mode resonances occurring in multi-layered structures is presented in the first part of the paper. The model includes the KLM equivalent circuit of a piezoelectric transducer used for sensing the resonances. Theoretical and experimental results are presented showing the relation of the impedance plane indications to the parameters of adhesive in aluminum sandwich structures. Results of the mechanized inspection CFRP specimens are presented in the second part of the paper.
Nondestructive evaluation of airspace structures can be performed using ultrasonic spectroscopy utilizing the information in the frequency domain obtained due to the constructive and destructive interference of elastic waves. The application field of ultrasonic resonance spectroscopy (URS) is likely to increase rapidly with the growing application of layered structures in modern aircraft. The aim of this paper is to enlighten the potential and the limitations of the URS techniques. We start from explaining principles of URS applied to multi-layered structures and then we present a theoretical model that enables predicting the modal shapes and resonance frequencies of the thickness mode resonances occurring in multi-layered structures. The model also includes the piezoelectric transducer used for sensing the structure resonances. Presentation of the narrowband URS technique is illustrated with results of measurements performed using specially designed resonance transducers in carefully selected narrow frequency bands. We also present a novel method for sensing transducer's resonance based on the use of a phase locked loop (PLL).
Sweden has been intensively developing methods for long term storage of spent fuel from the nuclear power plants for twenty-five years. A dedicated research program has been initiated and conducted by the Swedish company SKB (Swedish Nuclear Fuels and Waste Management Co.). After the interim storage SKB plans to encapsulate spent nuclear fuel in copper canisters that will be placed at a deep repository located in bedrock. The canisters filled with fuel rods will be sealed by an electron beam weld. This paper presents three complementary NDE techniques used for assessing the sealing weld in copper canisters, radiography, ultrasound, and eddy current. A powerful X-ray source and a digital detector are used for the radiography. An ultrasonic array system consisting of a phased ultrasonic array and a multi-channel electronics is used for the ultrasonic examination. The array system enables electronic focusing and rapid electronic scanning eliminating the use of a complicated mechanical scanner. A specially designed eddy current probe capable of detecting small voids at the depth up to 4 mm in copper is used for the eddy current inspection. Presently, all the NDE techniques are verified in SKB's Canister Laboratory where full scale canisters are welded and examined.
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