Miniaturized vectorial beam steering mirrors are required in numerous applications like (i) LIDAR, (ii) diagnostic imaging or (iii) miniaturized therapeutic laser systems. In this article we present a new type of electrostatically driven vectorial (2D quasi-static) MEMS scanning mirror with monolithic integrated position sensors. The vectorial MEMS scanner was specially optimized for the requirements of a compact therapeutic photocoagulation laser system for the treatment of retinal eye diseases. This requires a highly miniaturized MEMS scanning system for fast and precise vectorial beam positioning of the treatment laser with a positioning time of ≤ 5 ms. The quasi-static 2D drive of the presented 2D MEMS scanning mirror is based on electrostatic vertical comb actuators in combination with a noncardanic suspension of the 2.2 mm circular mirror plate. To measure and control the actual beam position piezoresistive position sensors are monolithically integrated into the MEMS design. The MEMS scanner was designed for a quasistatic (mechanical) 2D tilt angle of ± 2 ° for both scan axes each in two frequency variants with 714 Hz and 1 kHz at 70 V and 130 V drive voltage, respectively. For high laser powers of > 1.5 W (average power) at 519 nm wavelength, highly reflective optical coatings based on a symmetric HRC design of enhanced (hybrid) Al with R ≥ 98 % are used.
A translatory MOEMS actuator is presented, which enables a precise out-of-plane translatory oscillation of a 5mm mirror with 700 μm large stroke at 267Hz, when driven at 4V in parametric resonance. Due to significant gas damping operation in vacuum is needed. The minimum requirements on vacuum pressure (pmax ≥ 3.21 Pa, Q ≥ 1177) were determined experimentally. Therefore, the MOEMS are permanently encapsulated by means of a wafer-level-vacuum package. The hermetic sealing of MEMS WLVP (stack of 4 wafer 6”) was realized by glass-frit bonding (i) to be compatible to MEMS process AME75 and (ii) to avoid any (vertical) TWI. The ductile glass frit bond layer allows hermetic sealing also on non-ideal wafer topologies with height differences of several 100 nm. But high process temperatures of 435°C are required. Despite the high process temperatures (430°C needed for glass frit bonding) a sufficient static mirror planarity of ≤ λ/10 was achieved. The paper will discuss details of VWLP development and MEMS system integration. The longterm stability of 0.1 Pa inner vacuum pressure was successfully tested to be < 10a using a Ne fine leakage test. For system integration into a miniaturized FT-NIR spectrometer selected MEMS with minimal tilt were used. The NIR-FTS achieved a spectral resolution of 8.3 cm-1 and SNR ≤ 8000 (with co-adding of 1000 spectra). The new translatory MEMS are very promising for compact FTS. The versatility and ruggedness of a MOEMS-FTS makes it ideal for process control in harsh environments (e.g. surveillance of fast chemical reactions).
Miniaturized vectorial beam steering mirrors are required in numerous applications like (i) LIDAR, (ii) diagnostic imaging or (iii) miniaturized therapeutic laser systems. To increase simultaneously static tilt angle (≥ ±5°) and mirror aperture (≥ 3mm) electro-dynamic driven MEMS vector scanners, actuated by moving magnet drives, were developed. Here, Fraunhofer IPMS uses a hybrid MEMS concept combining its experience in the fabrication of monolithic silicon 2D MEMS scanning mirrors with existing know-how in MEMS micro-assembly technologies. Two designs of electro-magnetic driven vectorial 2D MEMS scanners are presented, (i) a non-gimbaled 2D vector scanner with 8 mm mirror aperture and ≥ ±2° quasi-static tilt angle and (ii) a 2D vector scanner with gimble suspended moving magnet drive. The gimbaled electro-magnetic MEMS scanner has a 5 mm large aperture and enables large quasi-static tilt angles of ±13° on both scan axis. Eigenfrequencies are 142 Hz (X) and 124 Hz (Y) allowing non-resonant vectorial scanning with speeds up to 100…400°/s. A step response time < 10 ms is achieved in closed loop control for both axes. This hybrid electro-magnetic MEMS approach significantly expands the parameter space of the previous monolithic electro-static scanners.
In many applications, there is a great demand for reliable, small, and low-cost three-dimensional imaging systems. Promising systems for applications such as automotive applications as well as safe human robotic collaboration are light detection and ranging (lidar) systems based on the direct time-of-flight principle. Especially for covering a large field of view or long-range capabilities, the previously used polygon-scanners are replaced by microelectromechanical systems (MEMS)-scanners. A more recent development is to replace the typically used avalanche photodiodes with single-photon avalanche diodes (SPADs). The combination of both technologies into a MEMS-based SPAD lidar system promises a significant performance increase and cost reduction compared with other approaches. To distinguish between signal and background/noise photons, SPAD-based detectors have to form a histogram by accumulating multiple time-resolved measurements. In this article, a signal and data processing method is proposed, which considers the time-dependent scanning trajectory of the MEMS-scanner during the histogram formation. Based on known reconstruction processes used in stereo vision setups, an estimate for an accumulated time-resolved measurement is derived, which allows to classify it as signal or noise. In addition to the theoretical derivation of the signal and data processing, an implementation is experimentally verified in a proof-of-concept MEMS-based SPAD lidar system.
We present the design and system integration of a hybrid MEMS scanning mirror (MSM) array developed for real-time three-dimensional imaging with a panoramic optical field of view (FOV) of 360 deg × 60 deg (horizontal × vertical). The pulsed time-of-flight light detection and ranging (LiDAR) system targets a distance measurement range of 100 m with a video-like frame rate of 10 Hz. The fast vertical scan axis is realized by a synchronous scanning MSM array with large receiver aperture. It increases the scanning rate to 3200 Hz, which is four times faster in comparison with state-of-the-art fast macroscopic polygon scanning systems used in current LiDAR systems. A hybrid assembly of frequency selected scanner elements was chosen instead of a monolithic MEMS array to guaranty high yield of MEMS fabrication and a synchronous operation of all resonant MEMS elements at 1600 Hz with large FOV of 60 deg. The hybrid MSM array consists of a separate emitting mirror for laser scanning of the target and 22 reception elements resulting in a large reception aperture of Deff = 23 mm. All MSM are driven in parametric resonance to enable a fully synchronized operation of all individual MEMS scanner elements. Therefore, piezoresistive position sensors are integrated inside the MEMS chip, used for position feedback of the driving control. We focus on the MEMS system integration including the microassembly of multiple MEMS scanning elements using micromechanical self-alignment. We present technical details to meet the narrow tolerance budgets for (i) microassembly and (ii) synchronous driving of multiple MEMS scanner elements.
This article presents the design and system integration of a hybrid MEMS scanner array (MSM) developed for a real time 3D imaging with a panoramic optical field of view (FOV) of 360° × 60° (horizontal × vertical). The pulsed ToF LiDAR system targets on a distance measurement range of 100 m with a video-like frame rate of 10 Hz. The fast vertical scan axis is realized by a synchronous scanning MSM array with large receiver aperture. It increases the scanning rate to 3200 Hz, which is four times faster in comparison to state-of-the-art fast macroscopic polygon scanning systems used in actual LIDAR systems. A hybrid assembly of frequency selected scanner elements was chosen instead of a monolithic MEMS array to guaranty high yield of MEMS fabrication and a synchronous operation of all resonant MEMS elements at 1600 Hz with large FOV of 60°. The hybrid MSM array consists of a separate emitting mirror for laser scanning of the target and 22 reception elements resulting in a large reception aperture of Deff = 23mm. All MSM are driven in parametric resonance to enable a fully synchronized operation of all individual MEMS scanner elements. Therefore, piezo-resistive position sensors are integrated inside the MEMS chip used for position feedback of driving control. The paper focus on the MEMS system integration including the synchronized operation of multiple MEMS scanning elements. It presents technical details to meet the narrow tolerance budgets for (i) micro assembly and (ii) synchronous driving of multiple MEMS scanner elements.
A translatory MOEMS actuator with extraordinarily large stroke - especially developed for fast optical path-length modulation in miniaturized FT-spectrometers (FTS) designed for NIR spectral region (800 nm – 2500 nm) - is presented. A precise translational out-of-plane oscillation at 260 Hz with a stroke of up to 700 μm and minimized dynamic mirror deformation of 80 nm is realized by means of an optimized MEMS design. The MOEMS device is driven electro-statically near resonance and is manufactured in a CMOS-compatible SOI process. Due to the significant viscous gas damping, dominated by the drag resistance of the comparatively large mirror plate with 5mm diameter, the resonant MEMS device has to operate under reduced pressure. A mirror stroke of 700 μm at a driving voltage of 4V is achieved by hermetic encapsulation of the actuator at at a maximal pressure of 3.2 Pa. For FTS system integration the MOEMS actuator has been encapsulated in an optical vacuum wafer-level package (VWLP) to guarantee a long-term stable vacuum pressure of 0.1 Pa and lifetime t ≥ 10a.
Various scanning applications like LIDAR sensors, OCT systems and laser projectors require a repeated periodic linear scanning trajectory performed by a quasi-static micro mirror. Since most MOEMS systems have inherent nonlinearities like a progressive spring stiffness and the quadratic voltage-deflection-relation of electrostatic drives, a nonlinear control scheme as presented in our previous paper significantly reduces parasitic oscillations of the resonance frequency and enables a high resolution raster scan combining a quasi-static axis with a cardanic mounted resonant axis. In this paper we address a novel control scheme using a flatness-based feedback control enhanced by a plug-in repetitive controller for the linear scanning axis. We demonstrate the applicability of this feedback control for a quasi-static moving micro mirror with electrostatic staggered vertical comb drives using a microcontroller-based driver. On-chip piezoresistive sensors serve as position feedback. We compare different scan trajectories and repetition rates with respect to the linearity and repeatability showing the robustness of the proposed control regime. Furthermore we discuss the advantage of this method to reduce the individual chip characterization for ramping up mass production.
KEYWORDS: Amplifiers, Sensors, Linear filtering, Mirrors, Micromirrors, Error analysis, Microcontrollers, Digital filtering, Analog electronics, Feedback control, Raster graphics, Control systems, Head
In this paper we present a 2D raster scanning quasi-static/resonant micro mirror being controlled in both axes in closed-loop with on-chip piezo-resistive sensor feedback. While the resonant axis oscillates with a given frequency, the quasi-static axis allows static as well as dynamic deflection up to its eigenfrequency because of its staggered vertical comb (SVC) drive arrangement. Due to the high quality factor of the very low damped spring-masssystem, an adapted trajectory planning using jerk limitation is applied for the quasi-static axis [1]. Nevertheless, inaccuracies of the applied nonlinear micro mirror model and external disturbances lead to undesired residual oscillation in open-loop control mode. To achieve high precise and fast beam positioning, we implement a flatness-based control algorithm with feedback to on-chip piezo-resistive deflection sensors. In comparison to previous work [2, 3], we developed a micro controller setup for driving the microscanner, that is equipped with an analog Bessel filter increasing the sensor signal quality significantly. In this study we demonstrate a small size and low power micro mirror driver including high-voltage generation and a microcontroller for real-time control as well as a head circuit board for high resolution sensing. We discuss experimental results of open-loop and closed-loop control for 2D raster scanning operation. Finally, the outlook is given to the intrinsic capability to compensate temperature drifts influencing the piezo-resistive sensor signal.
This paper presents the application of a real-time closed-loop control for the quasistatic axis of electrostatic micro scanning mirrors. In comparison to resonantly driven mirrors, the quasistatic comb drive allows arbitrary motion profiles with frequencies up to its eigenfrequency. A current mirror setup at Fraunhofer IPMS is manufactured with a staggered vertical comb (SVC) drive and equipped with an integrated piezo-resistive deflection sensor, which can potentially be used as position feedback sensor. The control design is accomplished based on a nonlinear mechatronic system model and the preliminary parameter characterization. In previous papers [1, 2] we have shown that jerk-limited trajectories, calculated offline, provide a suitable method for parametric trajectory design, taking into account physical limitations given by the electrostatic comb and thus decreasing the dynamic requirements. The open-loop control shows in general unfavorable residual eigenfrequency oscillations leading to considerable tracking errors for desired triangle trajectories [3]. With real-time closed-loop control, implemented on a dSPACE system using an optical feedback, we can significantly reduce these errors and stabilize the mirror motion against external disturbances. In this paper we compare linear and different nonlinear closed-loop control strategies as well as two observer variants for state estimation. Finally, we evaluate the simulation and experimental results in terms of steady state accuracy and the concept feasibility for a low-cost realization.
Two new technological process flows for the piezoresistive position detection of resonant and quasistatic micro scanning mirrors were developed to increase sensitivities by a factor of 3:6 compared to former sensors, improve signal to noise ratio of the sensor signal and to allow controlled feedback loop operation. The sensor types use differently doped and deposited silicon. One is based on single crystal silicon with a pn-junction to isolate the active sensor area from the device layer silicon, the other one is based on a deposited and structured polysilicon. The sensor characteristics are compared including light, temperature dependence and reliability results.
This paper presents a large aperture micro scanning mirror (MSM) array especially developed for the novel 3D-laser
camera Fovea3D. This 3D-camera uses a pulsed ToF technique with 1MVoxel distance measuring rate and targets for a
large measurement range of 30…100m and FOV of 120°x60° at video like frame rates. To guarantee a large reception
aperture of ≥ 20mm, large FOV and 3200 Hz bi-directional scanning frequency at the same time, a hybrid assembled
MSM array was developed consisting of 22 reception mirrors and a separate sending mirror. A hybrid assembly of
frequency selected scanner elements and a driving in parametric resonance were chosen to enable a fully synchronized
operation of all scanner elements. For position feedback piezo-resistive position sensors are integrated on each MEMS
chip. The paper discusses details of the MEMS system integration including the synchronized operation of multiple
scanning elements.
KEYWORDS: Microelectromechanical systems, Spectrometers, Mirrors, Signal to noise ratio, Sensors, FT-IR spectroscopy, Spectral resolution, Near infrared, Packaging, System integration
With a trend towards the use of spectroscopic systems in various fields of science and industry, there is an increasing
demand for compact spectrometers. For UV/VIS to the shortwave near-infrared spectral range, compact hand-held
polychromator type devices are widely used and have replaced larger conventional instruments in many applications.
Still, for longer wavelengths this type of compact spectrometers is lacking suitable and affordable detector arrays. In
perennial development Carinthian Tech Research AG together with the Fraunhofer Institute for Photonic Microsystems
endeavor to close this gap by developing spectrometer systems based on photonic MEMS. Here, we review on two
different spectrometer developments, a scanning grating spectrometer working in the NIR and a FT-spectrometer
accessing the mid-IR range up to 14 μm. Both systems are using photonic MEMS devices actuated by in-plane comb
drive structures. This principle allows for high mechanical amplitudes at low driving voltages but results in gratings
respectively mirrors oscillating harmonically. Both systems feature special MEMS structures as well as aspects in terms
of system integration which shall tease out the best possible overall performance on the basis of this technology.
However, the advantages of MEMS as enabling technology for high scanning speed, miniaturization, energy efficiency,
etc. are pointed out. Whereas the scanning grating spectrometer has already evolved to a product for the point of sale
analysis of traditional Chinese medicine products, the purpose of the FT-spectrometer as presented is to demonstrate
what is achievable in terms of performance. Current developments topics address MEMS packaging issues towards long
term stability, further miniaturization and usability.
One of the important challenges for widespread application of MOEMS devices is to provide a modular interface for easy handling and accurate driving of the MOEMS elements, in order to enable seamless integration in larger spectroscopic system solutions. In this contribution we present in much detail the optical design of MOEMS driver modules comprising optical position sensing together with driver electronics, which can actively control different electrostatically driven MOEMS. Furthermore we will present concepts for compact spectroscopic devices, based on different MOEMS scanner modules with lD and 2D optical elements.
A translatory MOEMS actuator with extraordinary large stroke—especially developed for fast optical path length modulation in miniaturized Fourier transform infrared spectrometers (FTSs)—is presented. A precise translational out-of-plane oscillation at 500 Hz with large stroke of up to 1.2 mm is realized by means of an optimized MEMS design using four pantograph suspensions of the comparative large mirror plate with 5-mm diameter. The MOEMS device is driven electrostatically resonant and is manufactured in a CMOS compatible silicon-on-insulator process. Up to ±600 μm amplitude (typically 1 mm stroke) has been measured in vacuum of 30 Pa and 50 V driving voltage for an optimized pantograph design enabling reduced gas damping and higher driving efficiency. For FTS system integration, the MOEMS actuator has been encapsulated in a hybrid optical vacuum package. The thermal influences of packaging technology on MOEMS behavior are discussed in more detail.
We present two novel micro scanning mirrors with large aperture and HR dielectric coatings suitable for high power laser
applications in a miniaturized laser-surgical instrument for neurosurgery to cut skull tissue. An electrostatic driven
2D-raster scanning mirror with 5x7.1mm aperture is used for dynamic steering of a ps-laser beam of the laser cutting
process. A second magnetic 2D-beam steering mirror enables a static beam correction of a hand guided laser instrument.
Optimizations of a magnetic gimbal micro mirror with 6 mm x 8 mm mirror plate are presented; here static deflections of
3° were reached. Both MEMS devices were successfully tested with a high power ps-laser at 532nm up to 20W average
laser power.
This paper presents a gimbaled MEMS scanning mirror (MSM) especially developed for adaptive raster scanning in a
novel 3D ToF laser camera. Large quasi-static deflections of ±10° are provided by vertical comb drives in vertical
direction in contrast to resonant horizontal scanning of the 2.6x3.6mm elliptical mirror at 1600 Hz and 80° optical scan
range. For position feedback piezo-resistive position sensors are integrated on chip for both axes. To guarantee the full
reception aperture of effective 5 mm a synchronized driven MEMS scanner array - consisting of five hybrid assembled
MEMS devices - are used in a novel 3D ToF laser scanner enabling a distance measuring rate of 1MVoxel/s and an
uncertainty of ToF distance measurement of 3…5 mm at 7.5 m measuring range for a gray target.
This paper reports on a gimbaled MEMS scanning mirror with quasistatic resonant actuation, specially developed for adaptive raster scanning in an innovative three-dimensional (3-D) time-of-flight (ToF) laser camera with real-time foveation. Large quasistatic deflections of ±10 deg are provided by vertical comb drives in the vertical direction in contrast to resonant horizontal scanning. This mirror is 2.6×3.6 mm and operates at 1600 Hz with an 80-deg optical scan range. For position feedback, piezo-resistive position sensors are integrated on chip for both axes. To guarantee the full reception aperture of effectively 5 mm, a synchronized driven MEMS scanner array—consisting of five hybrid assembled MEMS devices—is used in an innovative 3-D ToF laser scanner. This enables a distance measuring rate of 1 MVoxel/s with an uncertainty in distance measurement of 3 to 5 mm for a 7.5-m measuring range for a gray target. Flatness-based open loop control is used for driving control of quasistatic axis in order to compensate for the dynamics of the low damped MEMS system.
Recently, we have realized a new position sensing device for MOEMS mirrors applicable to arbitrary trajectories, which
is based on the measurement of a reflected light beam with a quadrant diode. In this work we present the characteristics of this device, showing first experimental results obtained with a test set-up, but also theoretical considerations and
optical ray-tracing simulations.
In this paper we present a driver for accurate positioning of certain electrostatically driven micro-opto-electromechanical system (MOEMS) based scanner mirrors. The driver unit can control up to six quasi-static mirror axes using closed loop control. The electronics are described in this contribution together with different closed-loop control algorithms, which were implemented for fast and accurate positioning. Results from closed loop operation are compared to the characteristics of the devices when driven in open loop mode. Settlings times and operating bandwidth can be improved by a factor of up 40.
Recently, we have developed compact modules comprising optical position sensing, and driver electronics, with closed
loop control, which can measure the trajectory of resonantly driven 2D-micro-scanner mirrors. In this contribution we
present the optical design of the position sensing unit and highlight various critical aspects. Basically position encoding
is obtained using trigger signals generated when a fast photodiode is hit by a laser beam reflected from the backside of
the mirror. This approach can also be used in the case of 2D-mirrors. In our device the backside of the mirror is hit by
two crossed orthogonal laser beams, whose reflections pass cylindrical mirrors in order to suppress the orthogonal
dimension. Mirror deflection around one axis is compensated at the plane of the detection diodes while deflection around
the other axis leads to a linear displacement of the beam. The optical design of the unit has to provide the optimal
compromise between the requirements for small size and simplicity on the one hand and optical accuracy on the other.
We design the optical unit for an imaging time-of-flight scanner camera based on partially steerable micro
mirrors. This new class of 3D cameras enables video frame rates and-in conjunction with the accompanying
user software-online real-time selection of regions of interest.
The challenges for the optical design comprise (i) sufficient light collection from close-up objects, (ii) maximizing
optical efficiency for objects at large distances, (iii) reduction of the dynamical range of signal returns
and (iv) minimization of parasitic scattering.
We present a solution based on coaxial beam guidance, where the emitted beam first passes a beam splitter, is
then deflected by a dedicated emission mirror in the center of a point-symmetrical, synchronized arrangement of
five micro mirrors and finally passes a protective spherical glass cover. The mirror assembly is slightly displaced
from the center of the dome in order to establish a secondary focus for parasitic reflections at the inside of the
cover. The light scattered at the target surface which reaches the mirror array is directed towards an assembly
of rhomboid prisms. These prisms reshape the distributed mirror array aperture such that a small lens with high
numerical aperture suffices to focus the light onto a fast, small-area avalanche photo diode, thus maximizing the
acceptance angle of the detector and permissible misalignments of the element mirrors.
A translatory MOEMS actuator with extraordinary large stroke - especially developed for fast optical path length
modulation in miniaturized FTIR-spectrometers (FTS) - is presented. A precise translational out-of-plane oscillation at 500
Hz with large stroke of up to 1.2 mm is realized by means of an optimized MEMS design using four pantograph
suspensions of the comparative large mirror plate with 5mm diameter. The MOEMS device is driven electro - statically
resonant and is manufactured in a CMOS compatible SOI process. Up to ± 600 μm amplitude (typically 1mm stroke) has
been measured in vacuum of 30 Pa and 50 V driving voltage for an optimized pantograph design enabling reduced gas
damping and higher driving efficiency. For FTS system integration the MOEMS actuator has been encapsulated in a hybrid
optical vacuum package. In this paper we discuss the thermal influences of packaging technology on MOEMS behaviors
more detail.
KEYWORDS: Mirrors, Microopto electromechanical systems, Control systems, Scanners, Analog electronics, Microcontrollers, Microelectromechanical systems, Digital signal processing, Actuators, Amplifiers
In this paper we present closed-loop control for accurate positioning of micro optical mechanical system (MOEMS)
based scanner mirrors. An analog and a microcontroller based implementation of the control loop have been
implemented and are presented in this paper. In particular, the measured results are compared to the characteristics of the
devices when driven in open loop mode. Settlings times and operating bandwidth can be improved by a factor of 10
compared to open loop operation. Digital implementations have advantages in terms of flexibility, but show limitations
for fast signals due to time discretization.
This paper describes in detail our concept of quasi-static micro scanning mirrors enabling large static deflections and
linearized scanning using vertical out-of-plane comb drives. The vertical comb configuration is realized from a planar
scanner substrate by wafer bonding. The device concept is highly flexible by design; different kinds of vertical combs
(e.g. staggered and angular) can be realized without changing the technological process flow but by design
modifications, only. First demonstrator devices are presented: a) quasi-static 1D-scanners with 4 mm mirror diameter
and ±7.5° mechanical tilt angle for beam steering and b) a quasi-static / resonant 2D-scanner enabling 2D raster scanning
with SVGA resolution.
Standard FT-IR spectrometers are large, usually static, and expensive and require operation by qualified personnel. The
presented development involves achievements in MEMS technologies and electronics design to address size, speed and
power requirements and develop a fully integrated miniaturized FT-IR spectrometer. A suitably matched interaction of
multiple new components - source, interferometer, detector and control and data processing - develops unique MEMS
based spectrometers capable of reliable operation and finally results in compact, robust and economical analyzers. The
presented system now aims at a high performance level to measure in the range between 5000-750 cm-1 at a spectral
resolution better than 10 cm-1. The Michelson interferometer design and the desired performance put several demands on
the MOEMS device. Amongst these, a mirror travel of ± 500 μm and a minimal dynamic deformation of < λ/10 peak-to
peak in combination with a large mirror aperture of 5 mm were the most challenging goals. However, a signal-to-noise
ratio of 1000 is required to qualify a FT-IR system as a sensor for industrial applications e.g. process control. The
purpose of the system, presented in this work, is to proof that this is feasible on the basis of MEMS technology and it is
demonstrated that most of these specifications could be already met.
For MOEMS devices which do not have intrinsic on-chip feedback, position information can be provided with optical
methods, most simply by using a reflection from the backside of a MOEMS scanner. Measurement of timing signals
using fast differential photodiodes can be used for resonant scanner mirrors performing sinusoidal motion with large
amplitude. While this approach provides excellent accuracy it cannot be directly extended to arbitrary trajectories or
static deflection angles. Another approach is based on the measurement of the position of the reflected laser beam with a
quadrant diode. In this work, we present position sensing devices based on either principle and compare both approaches
showing first experimental results from the implemented devices
We have developed compact devices to control electrostatically driven resonant micromirrors with one and two axes. For stable oscillation with large amplitude, operation close to resonance must be ensured under varying environmental conditions. Our devices feature optical position sensing and driver electronics with closed loop control. In this contribution, we present in much detail the novel two-dimensional device and highlight specific aspects of this system.
We show results on the progress in the development of MOEMS based FT spectrometers dedicated to operate in the mid-IR. Recent research is performed within an EC-FP7 project with the goal to show the feasibility of miniaturized high
performance infrared spectroscopic chemical analyzers. Exploiting the high analyte selectivity of the mid-IR paired with
the inherent sensitivity of an FT-IR spectrometer, such devices could be used in a wide range of applications, from air
monitoring over in-line real-time process control to security monitoring. For practical applicability in these fields,
appropriate detection limits and spectral quality standards have to be met. The presented system aims at a performance to
measure in the range between 4000-700 cm-1 at a spectral resolution better than 10 cm-1, which would clearly outmatch
previous MOEMS based spectrometer approaches. A further technological advantage is the rapid-scan capability. The
MOEMS devices oscillate at 500 Hz. A spectrometer based on this device can acquire 1,000 scans per second in
forward-backward mode. The interplay of all these components with the challenges in system integration will be
described in detail and experimental results will be shown, presenting a significant step forward in smart spectroscopic
sensors, microsystems technology and vibrational spectroscopy instrumentation.
We have developed compact devices comprising optical position sensing and driver electronics with closed loop control,
capable of driving resonant 1D- and 2D-MOEMS scanner mirrors. Position encoding is realized by measuring a laser
beam reflected from the backside of the mirror. In the 2D-device we use cylindrical mirrors in order to suppress the
deflection of the orthogonal dimension. This reduces the problem to the control of two independent 1D-oscillations and
allows accurate position sensing. The phase between the oscillations of the two orthogonal axes is actively controlled to
achieve a stable Lissajous figure. In this contribution we also demonstrate that this approach is scalable for
synchronization of separate MEMS mirrors.
A translatory MOEMS actuator with extraordinary large stroke - especially developed for fast optical path length
modulation in miniaturized FTIR-spectrometers - is presented. A precise translational out-of-plane oscillation at 500 Hz
with large stroke of up to 1.2 mm is realized by means of a new suspension design of the comparative large mirror plate
with 19.6 mm² aperture using four pantographs. The MOEMS device is driven electro - statically resonant and is
manufactured in a CMOS compatible SOI process. Up to ± 600 μm amplitude (typically 1mm stroke) has been measured in
vacuum of 30 Pa and 50 V driving voltage for an optimized pantograph design enabling reduced gas damping and higher
driving efficiency.
We have been developing a piezoresistive position detection for scanning micro mirrors in order to combine high
position resolution with the capability of monolithic integration. In comparison to our formerly published results,
the sensor sensitivity was strongly enhanced by implanting a 1 μm thick p-doped layer of NA ≈ 1017 cm-3 into
the lowly p-doped SOI device layer of NA ≈ 1015 cm-3. This sensitivity was even further improved by at least
a factor of 3 by a novel sensor design, allowing to couple more mechanical stress into the sensor structure.
Resonantly driven oscillating MOEMS mirrors have many applications in the fields of optics, telecommunication and
spectroscopy. Assuring stable resonant oscillation with well controlled amplitude under varying environmental
conditions is a complex task, which can impede or retard incorporation of such MOEMS mirrors in large systems. For
this we have developed compact modules comprising optical position sensing and driver electronics with closed loop
control, which can ensure stable resonant operation of 1D and 2D micro-mirrors. In this contribution we present in much
detail the position encoding and feedback scheme, and show very first experimental results with the novel 2D device.
With MEMS, it became possible to build pocket-sized spectrometers for various spectral ranges, including the near-IR or mid-IR. These systems are highly rugged and can measure spectral changes at ms time resolution or co-add several hundreds of scans to one spectrum achieving adequate signal-to-noise ratios. Two spectrometer systems a scanning grating based spectrometer and a FT-IR spectrometer both based on a micromechanical scanning mirror technology are presented. Furthermore, the focus of this work is on the development of an analyzer for dissolved CO2 showing the methodology and also first implementation steps towards a sensor solution. CO2(aq) calibration samples were prepared by different NaHCO3 concentrations in solution. Spectra and calibration data acquired with both MEMS based spectrometer prototypes are presented.
Traditional laser scanners for 3D distance measurement involve expensive, heavy, (potentially) slow rotating mirrors for
light deflection of the scanning TOF (time of flight) distance measurement, not suitable for compact, robust and highly
portable LIDAR system. On the other hand MEMS scanners are limited to small apertures not suitable for a precise TOF
measurement. To overcome this problem Fraunhofer IPMS presents a large aperture 1D-MEMS scanner array especially
designed for LIDAR applications. It is composed of 2 × 7 silicon mirror elements each having an identical design with
comparatively large aperture of 2.51 × 9.51mm2 and ±30° optical scan range. All mirrors are driven electrostatically
resonant with identical frequency close to design frequency of 250 Hz. By driving control all single scanner elements are
synchronized to identical phase and amplitude in respect to a master scanner. This results in a large effective scanner
aperture of 334 mm2 for the receiver optics and a filling factor of 80 %. To guarantee the synchronized operation the
paper discusses in detail the scanner design to enable a sufficiently large frequency bandwidth of all scanner elements to
the compensate frequency tolerances caused by fabrication and packaging. In comparison to LIDAR systems with
conventional scanner components, the large aperture 1D-MEMS scanner array enables 3D-LIDAR systems to become
significantly smaller, more robust and (potentially) less expensive, also higher scan rates can be realized without
additional efforts (e.g. no air bearings are needed).
In this article we present a new large aperture 1D-MEMS scanner module especially designed for laser radar systems.
The scanner module has a resonance frequency of 250 Hz and optical scan range of 60°. It comprises of two separate
scanning channels: (a) a single scanning mirror of the collimated transmitted beam oscillates parallel to (b) a scanning
mirror array of the receiver optics. The receiver optics use a synchronized array of 2 × 7 identical mirror elements, each
with 2.51× 9.51 mm2 per single mirror element, resulting in a total aperture of 334 mm2 and filling factor of 80 %. We
discuss in detail the system integration of the MEMS components including packaging and synchronized operation of all
scanner elements to guaranty a large aperture of the LIDAR receiver optics. In addition the paper includes a conceptual
discussion of optical design and expected S/N ratio and measurement range of final LIDAR system. It will be shown that
the presented new concept of MEMS based LIDAR system can realize also high accuracy of the distance measurement
similar to state of the art TOF-LIDAR scanners enabling a new generation of miniaturized, robust and potentially costefficient
LIDAR systems due to the MEMS technology.
Resonantly driven oscillating MOEMS mirrors are used in various fields in optics, telecommunications and
spectroscopy. One of the important challenges in this context is to assure stable resonant oscillation with well controlled
amplitude under varying environmental conditions. For this reason, we developed a compact device comprising a
resonant MOEMS micro-mirror, optical position sensing, and driver electronics, with closed loop control, which ensures
operation close to the mirror resonance. In this contribution we present this device and show experimental results with a
23 kHz MOEMS mirror, which demonstrate its capabilities and limitations.
In 2007 IPMS and MVIS presented the results of a full colour scanned beam imaging system. In this paper we will in
addition give an update on the technological development on die level since the last paper. The already small die size of
3000 μm × 2300 μm was further reduced to less than 2000 μm × 2000 μm. The new devices consist of a moveable
frame oscillating at frequencies in the range of 700 Hz - 900 Hz and 1400 Hz - 1800 Hz carrying a mirror of 350 μm
diameter in a gimbal mounting. The mirrors oscillate at frequencies in the range of 13-15 kHz. The characteristic
mechanical amplitudes are 21° MSA (mechanical scan angle) for the frame and 28° MSA for the mirror respectively.
Voltages of less than 50 V for the frame and 100 V for the mirror were necessary to accomplish this. The improved
MEMS device design is presented as well as the related measurement results. The images of various objects taken with
an optical system using the former devices are presented revealing the excellent resolution of such a system and
enabling an outlook on the possibilities of the new device.
Aluminum nitride (AlN) is a promising piezoelectric material suitable for full CMOS compatible MEMS processes. Due
to the transversal inverse piezoelectric effect the use of AlN enables quasistatic deformable mirrors by actively coupling
lateral strain in micro machined membranes. In this work a fast and reliable way for reactive magnetron rf-sputtered aluminum
nitride thin films with piezoelectric properties is shown. The thin AlN films were deposited on amorphous TiAl,
SiO2 and silicon substrates using an industrial PVD cluster system. The morphologies of the deposited polycrystalline
AlN films are characterized by X-ray diffraction measurements and SEM images of the layer surfaces. An enhanced
texture coefficient is used to demonstrate the correlation between the X-ray diffraction pattern and the surface topology.
High values of this enhanced texture coefficient will guarantee piezoelectric properties. Virtual powder X-ray diffraction
experiments are used to determine the relative powder intensities required for texture coefficient evaluation. The transversal
inverse piezoelectric coupling coefficient d31 is measured for tempered and untreated aluminum nitride thin films
with high enhanced texture coefficients by quasistatic deflected wafer cantilevers.
We present a new method for detecting the accurate position of micro-electro-opto-mechanical system (MOEMS)
devices, thus enabling the implementation of closed-loop controls. The ensuing control mechanism allows building
robust MOEMS-based Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) spectrometers with large mechanical amplitudes and thus good
spectral resolutions. The MOEMS mirror device, a rectangular 1.65 mm² metalized plate mirror suspended on bearing
springs and driven by comb-structured electrodes, is driven by a rectangular signal with a duty cycle of 50% and high
voltage levels up to 140 V at a frequency near twice its mechanical resonance frequency. Out-of-plane mirror
displacements of up to ±100 μm have thus been achieved. To handle the high bandwidth of the sinusoidal mirror position
reference signal, which is generated by a laser reference interferometer, an analog position detection circuit is necessary.
This dedicated circuit demodulates the reference signal and generates a highly accurate control signal returning the zerocrossing
position of the mirror. This permits the implementation of a closed-loop control, which ensures optimally stable
MOEMS mirror movement and maximal mechanical amplitude, even under varying environmental conditions. While
this solution has been developed for a specific MOEMS device, the principle is widely applicable to related components.
In this paper we present a novel translatory MOEMS device with extraordinary large stroke especially designed for fast
optical path modulation in an improved miniaturized Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) spectrometer capable to perform
time resolved measurements from NIR to MIR. Recently, we presented a first MOEMS based FTIR system using a
different translatory MOEMS actuator with bending suspensions of the mirror plate and ±100μm oscillation amplitude
resulting in a limited spectral resolution of 30 cm-1.
For the novel MOEMS actuator an advanced pantograph suspension of the mirror plate was used to guarantee an
extraordinary large stroke of up to 500 μm required for an improved spectral resolution. To optimize the optical
throughput of the spectrometer the mirror aperture was increased to 7 mm2. The MOEMS actuators are driven electro
statically resonant using out-of-plane comb drives and operate at a resonant frequency of 500 (1000) Hz, respectively.
Hence, this enables to realize an improved MOEMS based FTIR-spectrometer with a spectral resolution of up to 10 cm-1,
a SNR of > 1000:1 and an acquisition time of 1 ms per spectrum of the miniaturized FTIR-system.
In this article we discuss in detail the design and the experimental characteristics of the novel large stroke translatory
MOEMS device. The application and system integration, especially the optical vacuum packaging, of this MOEMS
device in an improved miniaturized MOEMS based FTIR spectrometer enabling ultra rapid measurements in the NIRMIR
spectral region with 12cm-1 spectral resolution is discussed in a separate paper submitted to this conference.
We present an improved FTIR spectrometer using a novel MOEMS actuator and discuss in detail the properties of the
MOEMS component and the resulting FT-IR sensor device. Spectral resolution and the spectral range allow making use
of the inherent multi-analyte detection capabilities giving the spectroscopy platform an advantage over singlewavelength
IR sensors. With its further miniaturization potential due to its MOEMS core, this compact, energy efficient
and robust spectrometer can thus act as transducer for portable and ultra-lightweight spectroscopic IR sensors, e.g. all
purpose hazardous vapor sensors, sensors for spaceborne and Micro-UAV based IR analysis, and many more.
A technology approach is presented which enables an initial permanent counter electrode deflection of planar out of
plane comb drive actuators allowing quasistatic operation of an electrostatic microscanner. The device is assembled by
mounting a top wafer with salient stamps onto a mirror wafer. The commonly fix in plane counter electrode parts on the
mirror wafer are connected to deflectable platforms via a mechanical structure of coupled hinges. During the wafers
assembly the down pressing stamps displace the platforms and result in a predefined permanent out of plane counter
comb deflection.
Position feedback of resonant scanning micromirrors plays a key role for various applications like portable laser
projection displays or scanning grating spectrometers. The SOI device layer without an additional surface implantation
is used for the piezoresistive sensor design. It assures the full compatibility to microscanner technology
and requires no additional technological efforts. The necessary asymmetry of the current field density is achieved
by the geometrical design of the sensor and its contacting. Integrated 2D position sensors with amplitude sensitivities
of 0.42mV/V° were fabricated. FEA simulation and measured data correlates well with variations of
≤ 20.4%.
We present several types of translatory MOEMS actuators developed for fast optical-path-length modulation [e.g., in confocal microscopes or Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) spectrometers] and their application on miniaturized FTIR spectrometers capable of performing time-resolved measurements from the near infrared to the mid infrared. The MOEMS devices are manufactured in a complementary metal oxide semi conductor compatible silicon-on-insulator process. They are electrostatically resonant, driven using in-plane comb drives. A first translatory 5-kHz MOEMS device is used in a first prototype of a miniaturized MOEMS-based FTIR spectrometer where the MOEMS actuator replaces the macroscopic mirror drive, enabling a miniaturized, robust, and low-cost FTIR system. The mirror plate of 1.65 mm2 is suspended by bending springs. Due to the resonant operation, a 200-µm stroke can be achieved with low voltages (<40 V) at an ambient pressure below 500 Pa. Consequently, this yields a spectral resolution of 25 cm−1 and an acquisition time of 200 µs per spectrum. In addition, we present a novel MOEMS device with an increased mirror aperture of 7.1 mm2 and pantograph-like mirror suspension enabling up to a 500-µm stroke. This device is specifically optimized for miniaturized FTIR spectrometers to enable an improved spectral resolution of 10 cm−1 and a signal-to-noise ratio of >1000:1.
Spectroscopy in the infrared region is today an important application to measure, control and investigate liquids or
gases in industrial, medical or environmental applications. We have developed a small, transportable NIRspectrometer
with a size of only 120 x 80 x 80 mm3, and a MOEMS-scanning-grating chip as main element. The
scanning-grating chip is resonantly driven by a pulsed voltage of only 36V, has a mirror aperture of 3 x 3 mm2 and
reaches maximum deflection angles of +/- 11o. The NIR-micro-spectrometer works currently in a spectral range of
1200 - 1900 nm with a resolution of less than 10 nm using only one single InGaAs-diode as detector. Additionally,
scanning grating chips have been already developed for spectral ranges of 900 - 1800 nm and 1250 - 2500 nm. One
entire spectral measurement is done within 6 milliseconds, calculated by a digital signal processor, which is included
in the spectrometer. Results can be either displayed by special computer software or directly by a graphical user
interface. In this paper, we will focus on the control of the grating fabrication process, which can be done by
microscopy, using new control structures. A time-consuming control with SEM (Scanning electron microscope) is
no longer needed. Furthermore the characterization of the fabrication process and its consequence on the
spectrometer properties will be discussed, as well as the characterization of the scanning grating chip itself
(frequency, movement, static deformation, spectral efficiency...). Characteristic measurement results of an argon
calibration lamp, which shows the performance of the NIR-micro-spectrometer, will be presented as well.
In this paper we present a MOEMS based miniaturized Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) spectrometer capable to
perform time resolved measurements from NIR to MIR. The FTIR-spectrometer is based on a MOEMS translatory
actuator which replaces the macroscopic mirror drive enabling a miniaturized, robust and low cost FTIR system. The
MOEMS device is manufactured in a CMOS compatible process using SOI technology. Due to the electrostatic driving
principle based on in-plane electrode combs, 200 μm stroke can be achieved with comparatively low voltages (<40 V) at
an ambient pressure below 500 Pa. The actuator plate, acting as mirror with an area of 1.65 mm2, operates at a resonant
frequency of 5 kHz. Consequently this yields a maximum spectral resolution of 25 cm-1 and an acquisition time of
200 μs per spectrum. Based on a Michelson setup the infrared optical bench of the presented FTIR system is designed to
account for the mirror aperture and the desired spectral bandwidth of 2 μm to 5 μm. The integrated signal processing
electronics has to cope with a bandwidth of 8 MHz as a result of the mirror motion. A digital signal processor manages
system control and data processing. The high acquisition rate and integration level of the system makes it appropriate for
applications like process control and surveillance of fast reactions. First results of transmission and absorbance
measurements are shown. In addition we present a novel MOEMS device with increased mirror aperture and stroke
which will be used for further optimization of the spectral FTIR-resolution.
This paper addresses different highly reflective optical coatings on micro scanning mirrors (MSM) for applications in the NIR-VIS-UV- spectral region to enable new applications at high optical power density like laser marking and material treatment. In the common case of MSM with an unprotected Al coating, the absorption limits the maximal power density because of induced heating. In contrast to macroscopic optics HR-micro mirror coatings have to guarantee additional demands like low-stress and CMOS compatibility. Hence, to enable novel high power applications of MSM in the NIR-VIS-UV spectral region highly reflective low-stress coatings have been developed according to a triple strategy: (a) broadband metallic reflectors, (b) dielectric multilayers and (c) enhanced hybrid coatings.
For Au and Ag based NIR-coatings an excellent mirror planarity and a reflectance around 99 % (@ 1064 nm) have been achieved, whereas dielectric coatings reached 99.7 % for a (LH)4 design and thinner low-stress hybrid NIR-coatings reached up to 99.8 % enabling an improved mirror planarity and excellent laser damage threshold. For the VIS and UV spectral region enhanced hybrid HR-coatings have been favored, because they enable high reflectance of up to 99.7 % @ 633 nm or 98.8 % @ 308 nm in combination with low stress, high mirror planarity and CMOS compatibility.
KEYWORDS: Electrodes, Finite element methods, Micromirrors, 3D modeling, Capacitance, Mirrors, Electroluminescence, Data modeling, Microsystems, Microelectromechanical systems
Since damping is the limiting factor for the reachable maximum deflection, it is a very important issue in the context of resonant microsystems. In this paper, we present an optimized comb design and an extended damping model for out-of-plane scanning micromirrors. It bases on the compact analytical model published by Sandner et al. (at the SPIE conference Photonics Europe in 2004). The basic concept of this model is to attribute viscous damping in the comb gaps as the dominant contributor of damping moments. The model is extended by findings from a fluidmechanical FEM model of an electrode finger. It also considers the effects from pressure and temperature changes. The extended model is verified and discussed in the context of experimental results. The primary goal of damping analysis and optimization is to minimize power consumption and to reduce driving voltage. To consider that, the damping of the out-of-plane electrode comb is discussed in the context of its capacitance. One of the results presented in this paper is a out-of-plane comb-drive with optimized drive efficiency.
In recent years, Micro Opto Electro Mechanical Systems (MOEMS) have been reached more and more importance in technical applications. This is caused by the increased reliability of micro systems combined with the reduction of costs by high volume production. In this paper, we will present a resonant scanning grating chip with high diffraction efficiency, developed for the NIR region (900 - 2500 nm), which is based on our resonant micro scanning mirror. The grating was additionally applied to the silicon mirror plate by a chemical wet etch process. Therefore, three different fabrication technologies have been developed, showing high efficiencies in the first diffraction order. Compared to investigations with direct structured gratings in the reflective aluminium surface, gratings with up to 714 lines/mm could be fabricated combined with an improved process parameter control. These new resonant driven scanning gratings are still compatible to the scanning mirror fabrication process. They have a large surface of 3x3 mm2 and resonant frequencies of down to 150 Hz, which results in a lower demand on the bandwidth of the electronic read out, when applied to a spectrometer set-up. The maximum mechanically scan angle of the grating mirror plate could be increased to +/- 12° at a driving voltage of 36 V. First measurement results and an improved design of a micro spectrometer, working with only one single InGaAs-Detector in a spectral range of 900 to 2500 nm will be presented and discussed.
This paper deals with vacuum UV optical coatings for micro mirrors applications. High reflecting low-stress optical coatings for the next-generation of micro mechanical mirrors have been developed. The optimized metal systems are applicable for the VUV spectral region and can be integrated in the technology of MOEMS, such as spatial light modulators (SLM) and micro scanning mirrors.
This paper addresses different highly reflective optical coatings on micro scanning mirrors (MSM) for applications in the NIR-VIS-UV-spectral region to enable new applications at high optical power density like laser marking and material treatment. In the common case of MSM with an unprotected Al coating, the absorption limits the maximal power density because of induced heating. In contrast to macroscopic optics HR-micro mirror coatings have to guarantee additional demands like low-stress and CMOS compatibility. Hence, to enable novel high power applications of MSM in the NIR-VIS-UV spectral region highly reflective low-stress coatings have been developed according to a triple strategy: (a) broadband metallic reflectors, (b) dielectric multilayers and (c) enhanced hybrid coatings. For Au and Ag based NIR-coatings an excellent mirror planarity and a reflectance around 99 % (@ 1064 nm) have been achieved, whereas dielectric coatings reached 99.7 % for a (LH)4 design and thinner low-stress hybrid NIR-coatings reached up to 99.8% enabling an improved mirror planarity and excellent laser damage threshold. For the VIS and UV spectral region enhanced hybrid HR-coatings have been favored, because they enable high reflectance of up to 99.7 % @ 633 nm or 98.8 % @ 308 nm in combination with low stress, high mirror planarity and CMOS compatibility.
Micro Opto Electro Mechanical Systems (MOEMS) reach more and more importance in technical applications. They are smaller than conventional devices, less expensive when fabricated in higher numbers and offer new options concerning reliability and measuring methods. Resonant movable micro-mirrors produced as single crystalline chips with CMOS-compatible technologies provide a broad field of applications. In this paper, we will present different micro-mirrors, which are developed by the Fraunhofer IPMS in Dresden, Germany. They have different layouts and are thus suitable for several applications. Fabricated 1D-mirrors with mechanical angles of ± 16° can be used for laser deflection in bar-code-scanners, 2D-mirrors with different sizes and frequencies are suitable for imaging, displaying etc. Furthermore processes to apply diffractive structures on the micro-mirror surface were developed, showing an increased efficiency in the first diffraction order. Thus a micro-spectrometer has been built up, working in a wavelength range of 900-2500 nm. Due to the Czerny-Turner set-up, only one fast single InGaAs-photodiode is required.
High reflecting low-stress optical coatings for the next-generation of micro mechanical mirrors have been developed. The optimized metal systems are applicable from VUV and DUV down to the UV and VIS spectral region and can be integrated in the technology of MOEMS, such as spatial light modulators (SLM) and micro scanning mirrors. This optimized metal designs enable to reconcile high optical performances with adequate mechanical properties and convenient CMOS compatibility. Currently, micro-mirror arrays with enhanced highly reflective coatings for DUV (λ = 193 nm) and VUV (λ = 157 nm) exist as prototypes.
This paper addresses different highly reflective optical coatings on micro scanning mirrors (MSM) for applications in the NIR-spectral region to enable new applications like laser marking and material treatment at high optical power density. In the case of MSM with an unprotected Al coating, the absorption limits the maximal power density because of induced heating. The damage threshold for unprotected Al coatings was investigated. In addition highly reflective enhanced metallic and dielectric multilayer coatings for the NIR have been developed and characterized. These coatings resolve the problems of unprotected aluminum coatings related to NIR absorption and the resulting limitation of applicable laser power density. The coatings ensure a high reflectance even in corrosive environments. Enhanced metallic broadband reflectors reach a reflectivity of 98.7% at 1064 nm whereas narrow-band dielectric multilayer coatings reach a reflectivity of 99.7% at 1064 nm.
In this paper we present the analytical and experimental investigation of the air damping of micromachined scanning mirrors with out-of-plane comb drive actuation. A simple, compact model for the damping torque is derived by estimating the orders of magnitude of certain damping contributors. Viscous damping in comb finger gaps is estimated to be the dominant contributor. Because the comb fingers disengage as the scan amplitude increases, the damping coefficient is dependent on the amplitude of angular vibrations. Experimental measurements are presented for a variety of comb-finger geometries. The comb finger length, width, and the gap between comb fingers are varied, and the damping behaviour for single-axis scanning is characterised by measuring the decay rate of free oscillations. The damping is characterised by the exponential decay constant δ, found by fitting to the decaying oscillation amplitude. The predictions of the analytical model are compared to these experimental damping measurements.
In this work, the laser intensity modulation method (LIMM) is applied to the investigation of the polarization distribution profile inside ferroelectric thin films. Here, a sinusoidal thermal wave is generated by a laser, thus causing a pyroelectric current. This current is influenced by the frequency and, hence, the penetration depth of the thermal wave inside the thin film as well as by the polarization state of this layer. The spatial polarization profile is then determined from the pyroelectric current spectrum by inverse solution of the appropriate FREDHOLM integral equation. Mathematically considered, this represents an ill-posed problem, which usually leads to numerically unstable solutions with an often severely disturbed waveform. Taking both profiles with larger gradients and superimposed noise at the pyroelectric current spectra into account, a TIKHONOV regularization method has to be employed to accomplish numerically stable and reliable results for the reconstructed polarization profiles. Based on the consideration of different typical polarization profiles, the influence of various regularization approaches was investigated, which determine the uncertainty of the reconstruction result. This work explains the effects of uncertainties of measurement due to data noise, non-optimal regularization parameters, material parameter variations and deviations of the thermal model and the influence of uncertainties due to non-optimal model assumptions. It will be shown that the lacking knowledge of precise thin film material parameters and noise inside the measuring setup represent the most decisive uncertainty sources for the LIMM method to determine polarization thickness profiles inside ferroelectric thin films.
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