We study four compressively strained GaInSb/AlGaInSb type I multi quantum-well (QW) laser
structures grown on GaAs, with increasingly strained QWs, aimed at emitting at ~4μm. This
wavelength region is highly important for applications such a free space communication,
biomedical imaging and trace gas sensing. The structures are analysed using photoluminescence,
photo-modulated reflectance and, at room temperature, using our novel, recently developed Fourier
transform infrared surface photo-voltage spectroscopy technique (FTIR-SPS). Neither
photoluminescence nor photo-modulated reflectance managed to give any characterisation
information at room temperature or such detailed information even at low temperatures. However,
FTIR-SPS clearly yielded a full set of transitions for all four samples including not only the barrier
bandgap, but also the QW ground state transition, from which the device operating wavelengths can
be inferred, and up to five excited state QW transitions. The full set of measured transition energies
are then compared closely with those predicted by an 8-band k.p model which takes account of the
band anisotropy and strain. There is generally a good agreement between the QW transitions
predicted by the model and those measured experimentally, but there is also a strong indication that
the current literature values for the AlGaInSb bandgap seem to be in considerable error for the
present alloy compositions. The FTIR-SPS technique gives information of great importance when
designing future devices to emit in this wavelength region.
Negative luminescent (NL) devices, which to an IR observer can appear colder than they actually are, have a wide range of possible applications, including use as modulated IR sources in gas sensing systems and as thermal radiation shields in IR cameras. A further important use would be a calibration source for IR focal plane arrays where there are many potential advantages over conventional sources, including high speed operation (for multi-point correction) and lower power consumption. Such applications present considerable technological challenges as they require large area uniform devices (>1cm2) with a large apparent temperature range.
In this paper we report on recent progress in fabricating large area (1.5cm × 1.5cm) negative luminescence devices from Hg1-xCdxTe grown on silicon substrates using a segmented device architecture.
The addition of small amounts of nitrogen to III-V semiconductors leads to a large degree of band-gap bowing, giving rise to band-gaps smaller than in the associated binary materials. The addition of a small percentage of nitrogen to GaSb or InSb is predicted to move their response wavelengths into the long or even very long wavelength IR ranges. We report the growth of GaNxSb1-x by MBE, using an r.f. plasma nitrogen source, examining the influence of plasma power, substrate temperature and growth rate. We demonstrate high structural quality, as determined by x-ray diffraction, and show a reduction in band-gap by over 300meV, compared with GaSb, based on FTIR transmission spectroscopy. We also report initial experiments on the growth of InNxSb1-x and Ga1-yInyNxSb1-x, with a view to extending the response into the long and very long wavelength IR ranges.
The standard process for manufacturing mercury cadmium telluride (MCT) infrared focal plane arrays (FPAs) involves hybridising detectors onto a readout integrated circuit (ROIC). Wafer scale processing is used to fabricate both the detector arrays and the ROICs. The detectors are usually made by growing epitaxial MCT on to a suitable substrate, which is then diced and hybridised on to the ROIC. It is this hybridisation process that prevents true wafer scale production; if the MCT could be grown directly onto the ROIC, then wafer scale production of infrared FPAs could be achieved. In order to achieve this, a ROIC compatible with the growth process needs to be designed and fabricated and the growth and processing procedures modified to ensure survival of the ROIC. Medium waveband IR detector test structures have been fabricated with resistance area product of around 3x104 Ω cm2 at 77K. This is background limited in f/2 and demonstrates that wafer scale production is achievable.
Infrared avalanche diodes are key components in diverse applications such as eye-safe burst illumination imaging systems and quantum cryptography systems operating at telecommunications fiber wavelengths. HgCdTe is a mature infrared detector material tunable over all infrared wavelengths longer than ~850nm. HgCdTe has fundamental properties conducive to producing excellent detectors with low noise gain. The huge asymmetry between the conduction and valence bands in HgCdTe is a necessary starting point for producing impact ionization with low excess noise factor. Other factors in the band structure are also favorable. The low bandgap necessitates at least multi-stage thermoelectric cooling. Mesa diode structures with electron initiated multiplication have been designed for gains of up to around 100 at temperatures at or above 80K. Backside illuminated, flip-chip, test diode arrays have been fabricated by MOVPE using a process identical to that required for producing large imaging arrays. Test diode results have been obtained with the following parameters characterized, dark current vs. voltage and temperature, gain vs. voltage, and spectral response as a function of wavelength and bias. The effect of changing active region cadmium composition and active region doping is presented along with an assessment of some of the trade-offs between dark leakage current, gain, operating voltage and temperature of operation.
Negative luminescent devices, which absorb more light than they emit when reverse biased, have a large number of applications including, reference planes for thermal cameras, infrared (IR) sources and IR scene projection. This paper describes devices made from mercury cadmium telluride grown on silicon substrates, focusing on large area arrays with reduced operating powers. Novel growth structures and device designs have been investigated in order to reduce the series resistance. Results from the first dry etched, LW MCT on Si, 1 cm2 device with optical concentrators are presented.
We have developed a range of un-cooled mid-IR LEDs and photodiodes for IR gas sensing applications. Varying the composition of MBE grown Indium Aluminium Antimonide (In(1-x)AlxSb) epi-layers on GaAs allows us to engineer the emission/detection wavelength for a particular gas up to λmax≈6μm. The relatively high series resistance, LED drive requirements, and the non-optimised impedance matching of the un-biased photodiodes restricts the market for these components. Sub-dividing single element devices into N smaller devices connected in series enable the LED current and voltage requirements to be tailored to match the source, and improves the photodiode impedance matching.
We report the development of the necessary growth and photolithography technologies for series-connecting InAlSb diodes on GaAs substrates. We include results from multi-element Co2 (Al(x)=4.5%) and CH4 (Al(x)=8.5%) sensing LEDs and photodiodes. These impedance matched LEDs represent a 9-fold improvement in the wall-plug efficiency compared with single element LEDs with the same light output. The impedance of the multi-element photodiodes is increased significantly with respect to the series resistance, which gives up to a 5-fold improvement in sensitivity since the noise contributions from the external amplifier and series resistance are minimised. These advances have greatly improved the suitability of these components for gas sensing, and further improvements in the performance are expected through optimisation of the epi-layer design and the device geometry.
We have demonstrated the successful growth of mercury cadmium telluride (MCT) infrared detector material on silicon substrates. Growth on silicon increases the maximum achievable array size, reduces manufacturing costs, and paves the way for infrared detector growth directly on multiplexing circuits. In addition, the thermal match with multiplexing circuits eliminates the requirement for complex thinning procedures. Since the crystal lattice of MCT is not matched to that of silicon, an intermediate buffer layer is required. We have developed a buffer layer technique that is compatible with MCT grown by Metal Organic Vapour Phase Epitaxy (MOVPE). Long-wavelength heterostructure device designs were grown using this technique. Test devices and 128x128 focal plane arrays were fabricated by wet etching mesa structures and passivating the mesa side-walls with a thin layer of CdTe. An indium flip-chip technique was used to form interconnects between the detector material and test or multiplexing circuit. At 77K, 50x50μm test devices with a 10.2μm cut off wavelength have been measured with R0A~1x103Ohm cm2 at zero bias and R.A~1x104Ohm cm2 at 0.1V reverse bias. Arrays from this material have been demonstrated with operabilities up to 99.7%.
KEYWORDS: Cameras, Imaging systems, Sensors, Electronics, Calibration, Digital signal processing, Signal processing, Video, Video processing, Thermography
The Albion programme aims to develop high pixel count third generation infrared modules for medium, long and dual band infrared imager systems. The medium wave Albion detector having 1024x768 pixels on a 26μm pitch is the largest detector of its type in Europe. With a typical NETD of 12mK and capable of 50Hz frame rate output, this high performance detector has been encapsulated and combined with a high reliability cryogenic cooler to form a core module. To illustrate the high performance of the detector and to demonstrate the use of the core module a complete thermal imaging camera has been built. Although designed as an experimental system this camera, being only 300x420x180mm in size shows the relatively small step required to take the system to a fully productionised state. This paper describes the detector technology and other subsystems (e.g. optics, electronics and uniformity correction) which have been integrated into a high performance thermal imaging system.
We present results from indium antimonide and mercury cadmium telluride IR detector arrays operating at temperatures above 80K, whilst retaining high performance. Multi-layer epitaxial growth is employed to minimize thermally generated leakage currents, through the use of structures designed to control transport of charge generated outside of the active region to the diode junction and to minimize Auger generation within the active region. This enables an increase in operating temperature of a few tens of degrees in the case of background limited III-V devices, and thermoelectric operation of MCT detectors sensitive to the MWIR band. We also discuss the effects of reverse bias on diodes to actively suppress the Auger generation, and the consequent introduction of 1/f noise. Optical concentrators can be used to minimize the volume of detector material in order to gain further increases in temperature. The concentrators, based on Winston cone designs, are fabricated at each pixel by reactive ion etching directly into the detector material and its substrate, and allow a theoretical reduction in volume of a factor of up to 16. This translates into a potential additional increase in temperature of several tens of degrees.
Infrared LEDs and negative luminescent devices, where less light is emitted than in equilibrium, have been attracting an increasing amount of interest recently. They have a variety of applications, including as a 'source’ of IR radiation for gas sensing; radiation shielding for and non-uniformity correction of high sensitivity starring infrared detectors; and dynamic infrared scene projection. Similarly, IR detectors are used in arrays for thermal imaging and, discretely, in applications such as gas sensing. Multi-layer heterostructure epitaxy enables the growth of both types of device using designs in which the electronic processes can be precisely controlled and techniques such as carrier exclusion and extraction can be implemented. This enables detectors to be made which offer good performance at higher than normal operating temperatures, and efficient negative luminescent devices to be made which simulate a range of effective temperatures whilst operating uncooled.
In both cases, however, additional performance benefits can be achieved by integrating optical concentrators around the diodes to reduce the volume of semiconductor material, and so minimise the thermally activated generation-recombination processes which compete with radiative mechanisms. The integrated concentrators are in the form of Winston cones, which can be formed using an iterative dry etch process involving methane/hydrogen and oxygen. We will present results on negative luminescence in the mid and long IR wavebands, from devices made from indium antimonide and mercury cadmium telluride, where the aim is sizes greater than 1cm x 1cm. We will also discuss progress on, and the potential for, operating temperature and/or sensitivity improvement of detectors, where very higher performance imaging is anticipated from systems which require no mechanical cooling.
The use of epitaxially grown indium antimonide (InSb) has previously been demonstrated for the production of large 2D focal plane arrays. It confers several advantages over conventional, bulk InSb photo-voltaic detectors, such as reduced cross-talk, however here we focus on the improvement in operating temperature that can be achieved because more complex structures can be grown. Diode resistance, imaging, NETD and operability results are presented for a progression of structures that reduce the diode leakage current as the temperature is raised above 80K, compared with a basic p+-n-n+ structure presented previously. These include addition of a thin region of InAlSb to reduce p-contact leakage current, and construction of the whole device from InAlSb to reduce thermal generation in the active region of the detector. An increase in temperature to 110K, whilst maintaining full 80K performance, is achieved, and imaging up to 130K is demonstrated. This gives the prospect of significant benefits for the cooling systems, including, for example, use of argon in Joule-Thomson coolers or an increase in the life and/or decrease in the cost; power consumption and cool-down time of Stirling engines by several tens of per cent.
A dynamic infrared scene projector based on IR luminescent devices has many potential advantages compared with existing systems based on micro-resistor arrays. These include very fast response times, as individual devices can be driven at frequencies greater than 1 MHz, and no need for cryogenic cooling. Additionally, luminescent sources can not only appear hot to an IR observer when in forward bias, but also appear cold in reverse bias (commonly referred to as negative luminescence), so that a large apparent temperature range around ambient can be simulated. For a scene projector a large array of photodiodes is required, where each photodiode can be biased individually. As a precursor to the manufacture of a scene projector, we have already fabricated large area MW devices, consisting of arrays of photodiodes, suitable for use as calibration sources in IR cameras. To reduce the currents needed to achieve maximum dynamic temperature range, we have used a novel micromachining technique to fabricate integrated optical concentrators in InSb/InAlSb devices. We present here recent results from a large area (~0.86cm2) medium wavelength (MW) device, consisting of an array of photodiodes each with an integrated optical concentrator. The reverse saturation current of the device was measured to be ~2.3A/cm2, which is significantly smaller than the value of ~9A/cm2 reported previously for similar devices without optical concentrators. The device also displays a large apparent temperature range in line with device modelling. Finally, we will discuss the perspectives on using similar devices for dynamic infrared scene projection.
Negative luminescent (NL) devices, which to an IR observer appear colder than they actually are, have a wide range of possible applications, including for use as IR sources in gas sensing systems and as thermal radiation shields in IR cameras. Additionally these devices can be used as calibration sources for very large IR focal plane arrays and have many potential advantages over conventional calibration sources, including high speed operation and low power consumption. For many of these applications a large area device which displays as large area device which displays as large as possible apparent temperature range is required. However, under reverse bias significant currents are required to reduce the carrier concentrations to the levels needed for maximum dynamic range. We have therefore used a novel micromachining techniqe to fabricate integrated optical concentrators in InSb/InAlSb and HgCdTe NL devices. Smaller area diodes can then be used to achieve the same absorption and the required currents are thus reduced. To fabricate the concentrators, spherical resist masks are first produced by resist reflow. Inductively coupled plasma etchign is then used to alternatley etch the resist mask and the semiconductor, with oxygen and methane/hydrogen respectively, producing concentrators with almost parabolic profiles. Recent results from large area medium wavelength devices with integrated optical concentrators are presented, together with a description of the continuing optimization of the process and progress towards the fabrication of large area long wavelength devices.
Medium wavelength IR arrays have been develoepd which have 1024×768 pixels on a 26 micron pitch. The arrays are made from epitaxially grown indium antimonide, the use of which confers two advantages over conventional InSb owing to the ability to exercise atomic level control of dopants and material thicknesses. Firstly, the photodiodes can be grown on degenerately doped InSb substrates which have a high degree of transparency, so the requirement for the substrate to be thinned is much reduce dleading to simplified manufacture. Secondly, it offers the potential for an increase in operating temperature of many tens of degrees, through elimination of contact leakage currents, though we focus on 80K performance here for comparison with conventional structures. We present initail results form arrays which indicate high operability, despite the need to stitch reticles in the fabrication of the silicon read-out circuit, and temperature sensitivity close to the theoretical limit. Imaging from the arrays compares very favorably with that taken using generation II cameras and gives confidence that this technology offers a cost effective route to large format MWIR systems.
We report the growth by molecular beam epitaxy (MBE) of InAlSb/InSb superlattice structures to investigate their potential for reducing the Auger recombination and intervalence absorption effects, which currently limit the maximum operating temperature. The devices were all grown onto InSb(001) substrates and are not lattice matched. They are a psuedo double heterostructure, comprising an active region 3micrometers thick, consisting of 10 repeats of In0.904Al0.096Sb/InSb (10nm/6.5nm), surrounded by undoped layers of In0.944Al0.056Sb. Electrical confinement in the active region is by means of a 20nm thick wide gap In0.794Al0.206Sb barrier layer onto which a p type In0.944Al0.056Sb tunnel contact and highly doped n type In0.944Al0.056Sb region is grown, which together with a substrate highly doped n type In0.944Al0.056Sb region gives optical confinement, due to a Moss-Burstein shift of the refractive index. We have demonstrated laser operation up to 160K for devices ~1000micrometers long by 15micrometers wide. FTIR spectroscopy measurements revealed a lasing wavelength of 3.65micrometers at 80K. Under pulse bias conditions, the threshold current density was 320Acm-2 at 80K. The peak output power was in excess of 800mW. Detailed modeling of the structures shows that greater strain is required in the system in order to quench Auger losses at higher temperatures.
Negative luminescent (NL) devices, which to an IR observer appear colder than they actually are, have a wide range of possible applications, including for use as thermal radiation shields in IR cameras, and as IR sources in gas sensing systems. For many of these applications a large area (>1cm2) device is required, together with as large as possible apparent temperature range. However, under reverse bias significant currents are required to reduce the carrier concentrations to the levels needed for maximum possible absorption. These may lead to current heating of the device, which in turn reduces the apparent temperature range. We have therefore used a novel micromachining technique to fabricate integrated optical concentrators in InSb/InAlSb and HgCdTe NL devices. Smaller area diodes can then be used to achieve the same absorption (e.g. for InSb an area reduction of 16 is possible) and the required currents are thus reduced. To fabricate the concentrators parabolic resist masks are first produced, which are approximately 10 μm high and approximately 53 μm wide, by resist reflow at 120 degrees C. Inductively coupled plasma (ICP) etching is then used to alternately etch the resist mask and the semiconductor, with oxygen and methane/hydrogen respectively, producing concentrators with almost parabolic profiles. Currently, the concentrators are typically 30 μm high, with a top diameter of approximately 15 μm. Continuing optimization of the process to reach the theoretical limits of optical gain is described.
One of the most important factors limiting the optical efficiency of LEDs is total internal reflection of generated light, where photons incident to the surface at angles greater than the critical angle are reflected back into the semiconductor and absorbed. Most semiconductors have a large refractive index and hence a small critical angle. Narrow gap semiconductors, such as InSb, have particularly large refractive indexes and corresponding smaller critical angles. Additionally, strong absorption of light in the 3-5(mu) m range means that epoxy immersion lenses, which are used for GaAs Ir LEDs, cannot be used in InSb based IR LEDs. We have therefore used a novel micromachining technique to fabricate optical concentrators inInSb and HgCdTe layers. Inductively coupled plasma (ICP) etching is used to alternatively eatch the resist mask and the semiconductor, with oxygen and methane/hydrogen respectively, producing concentrators with parabolic profiles. Continuing optimization of the process to reach the theoretical limits of optical gain is described together with some of the main issues associated with the fabrication process.
Staring InSb FPAs grown by MBE have been demonstrated. Low growth temperatures have been employed to provide p+-n- n+ photodiodes with a dark, 80 K ROA equals 9 X 105(Omega) cm2. A degenerately doped substrate has been used to provide transparency in the 3.5 micrometer - 5.5 micrometer spectral region. Free carrier absorption necessitates some thinning of the substrate and an anti- reflection coated external quantum efficiency of 62% has been achieved with a final thickness of approximately equals 40 micrometer. 320 X 256 FPA's operating at 90 K and looking at a 295 K scene in f/2 have a noise equivalent temperature (NE(Delta) T) at half well of 10.4 mK. FPA operability exceeds 99.7%.
The incorporation of non-imaging optical concentrations in uncooled mid-IR LEDs is described. Novel micromachining methods are used to produce optical concentrators in the growth substrate of epitaxial InSb/InAlSb heterostructures. Resultant large area LED arrays, displaying both positive and negative luminescence, are shown to have optical gains of 3.5 over conventional mesas made form the same material. The LED technology shown also relies on the micromachined substrate being transparent to 3-5 micrometers radiation and to act as a low resistance common contact. The use of degenerate doping in InSb is described, resulting in a shift in the room-temperature transmission to the 3-5micrometers atmospheric window and providing high electrical conductivities.
IR detectors are normally cooled to 80K or below to obtain the highest, background limited performance. We present results for indium antimonide/indium aluminium antimonide and mercury cadmium telluride detectors grown by epitaxial processes in order to facilitate high performance with reduced cooling requirements. The epitaxial growth enables structures to be grown which offer precise control of carrier generation and current leakage mechanisms so that the maximum temperature can be achieve din a photodiode operated in a conventional manner, near zero bias. These types of structure offer even greater operating temperature when reverse biased to suppress non-radiative generation mechanisms. The epitaxial growth also has advantages for conventional, 80K operation, which are described.
We describe uncooled mid-IR light emitting and negative luminescent diodes made form indium antimonide based III-V compounds, and long wavelength devices made from mercury cadmium telluride. The application of these devices to gas sensing, improved thermal imagers and imager testing is discussed.
InSb and related ternary alloys have many potential applications in addition to the conventional one of infrared detection provided that near ambient temperature operation can be achieved. The growth by MBE of n-type and p-type InSb has been established using silicon and beryllium dopants respectively. Multilayer diode structures have been studied up to 300K in order to determine carrier generation mechanisms and examine concepts for ambient temperature operation.
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