We evaluate a novel wavefront sensing technique using digital holography. This technique divides the aperture plane into multiple subapertures with a unique digital holographic image created in each subaperture. This reduces the complexity and allows for parallelization of the total wavefront computation. This is a key result, as the associated decrease in the processing latency will increase the available bandwidth of an adaptive optics system. We demonstrate this technique through laboratory testing and show that the wavefront sensor can accurately measure phase degradations on a sample target image.
We discuss the use of nematic liquid-crystal phase modulators (LCPMs) as repeatable, programmable optical disturbance test sources to simulate propagation through deep atmospheric turbulence in a laboratory setting. LCPMs can introduce controlled dynamic aberrations into optical systems at low cost, low complexity and high flexibility. Because they are small they can easily be inserted into the optical path of optics system. The programmed sequence can be modified to simulate changing atmospheric conditions and engagement scenarios. In this paper we describe phase screens generated with multiple LPCMs set up at different conjugate points in an optical path to simulate multiple atmospheric turbulence layers. The goal is to simulate deep turbulence optical propagations to test subsequent wave-front sensors and control algorithms. We investigate phenomena related to deep turbulence propagation such as phase-front branch points and optical field intensity fluctuations with medium to high Rytov number.
This is the first of two papers discussing aspects of placing the deformable mirror in a location
not conjugate to the pupil plane of the telescope.
The Starfire Optical Range, Air Force Research Laboratory's Directed Energy Directorate
is in the process of developing a high efficiency AO system for its 3.5m optical telescope. The
objective is to achieve maximum diffraction limited performance, i.e., largest pupil diameter
possible, and maximum optical throughput. The later can be achieved by placing the deformable
mirror outside the pupil. However placing the DM in a location not conjugate to the pupil results
in a degradation in optical performance. This paper discusses experimental measurements of
the degradation.
In this paper we discuss the DM-not-in-pupil experimental testbed, the difficulties associated
with creating this type of testbed, and how these difficulties were overcome. We also present
results from the successful lab demonstration of closed loop performance with the DM placed out
of pupil. We experimentally measured the degradation in Strehl and implemented a mitigation
technique. Our experimental results indicate the mean degradation in Strehl as a result of placing
the DM out of pupil to be between 7% and 9 %. This result is comparable with wave optics
simulation and theoretical results which will be discussed in a companion paper, "Adaptive
optics with DM not in pupil - Part 2: Mitigation of Degradation".
The self-referencing interferometer (SRI) wavefront sensor (WFS) is being developed for applications requiring laser
propagation in strong scintillation. Because it directly measures the optical field of the wavefront, the SRI WFS is less
effected by scintillation than conventional WFSs. This feature also means the phase determined from the WFS
measurements is limited to the range -π to π, due to the use of the arctangent function. If a segmented wavefront
corrector is used, this constraint is not a problem. However, if a continuous facesheet deformable mirror is used, the
resulting phase should be unwrapped in order to minimize fitting error. There are a couple of places in the adaptiveoptical
(AO) closed-loop control process where an unwrapping algorithm can be inserted. Simulations of these
configurations have shown that how and where the unwrapping is carried out affects overall AO performance and loop
stability. This paper presents an overview of the unwrapping options and the associated issues. A laboratory
demonstration of two control loop configurations was carried out to test the validity of the simulation results. These
experiments and their outcome are discussed.
Over the last few years the Starfire Optical Range, Air Force Research Laboratory, Kirtland AFB, has been
developing the self-referencing interferometer (SRI) wave front sensor (WFS). The objective of this project
has been to demonstrate and evaluate the performance advantages the SRI WFS provides over conventional
WFSs, particularly in applications requiring laser propagation in strong scintillation. The initial SRI prototypes
relied on a temporal phase shifting approach to produce and capture the required interference images for wave
front reconstruction. This approach simplified the initial development by minimizing issues related to detector
calibration and the co-alignment of beams. In this paper we discuss the next step in our SRI development efforts
and present the design of a spatial phase shifting SRI WFS. The design allows all four interference images-
with respective phase shifts of 0, π/2, π, and 3π/2 between the reference and signal beams- to be captured
simultaneously on a single camera. Initial results from a laboratory demonstration of the design are shown.
To compensate for large phase errors at high bandwidth, a dual deformable mirror (DM) architecture is
introduced. One DM (the tweeter) handles the high spatial resolution errors with a small stroke, high bandwidth,
capability while the other DM (the woofer) corrects the larger but more slowly varying phase errors with a larger
stroke capability. An offload control architecture is shown to be very effective with the Kolmogorov turbulence
spectrum. The architecture is also shown to be effective when used with a self-referencing interferomenter (SRI)
wavefront sensor and an exponential control law for phase unwrapping. Performance is verified in simulation
and in an advanced wavefront control testbed facility at the Air Force Research Laboratory.
Multi-Conjugate Adaptive-Optical (MCAO) systems have been proposed as a means of compensating both intensity and phase aberrations in a beam propagating through strong-scintillation environments. Progress made on implementing a MCAO system at the Starfire Optical Range (SOR), Air Force Research Laboratory, Kirtland AFB, is discussed. As a preliminary step toward controlling a two deformable mirror (DM) system, the First-stage Intensity Redistribution Experiment (FIRE) examines one aspect of an MCAO system-control and compensation of wavefront intensity. Two wavefront sensors (WFS) and a single DM are employed for this experiment. One WFS is placed conjugate to the DM while the second WFS is located at a distance which produces a desired Fresnel number for the propagation between the WFSs. The WFS measurements are input to a Gerchberg-Saxton based control algorithm in order to determine the DM commands. The phase pattern introduced by the DM is chosen so propagation along the path between the two WFSs produces a desired intensity profile at the second WFS. The second WFS is also used to determine the accuracy of the intensity redistribution and measure its effects on the wavefront phase. In the next phase of MCAO development, a second DM will be added conjugate to the second WFS in order to correct the remaining phase aberrations. This paper presents the setup and operation for FIRE along with initial laboratory results.
This paper discusses the application of adaptive control methods in the Atmospheric Simulation and Adaptiveoptics
Laboratory Testbed at the Starfire Optical Range at the Air Force Research Laboratory, Kirtland AFB.
Adaptive compensation is useful in adaptive optics applications where the wavefronts vary significantly from one
frame to the next or where wind velocities and the strength of atmospheric turbulence change rapidly, rendering
classical fixed-gain reconstruction algorithms far from optimal. The experimental results illustrate the capability
of the adaptive control scheme to increase Strehl ratios and reduce jitter.
The Air Force Research Laboratory is developing a Self-Referencing Interferometer (SRI) wavefront sensor (WFS) for applications requiring laser propagation in strong scintillation. This paper compares several phase-shifting techniques that can be used to capture interference patterns and examines their effects on SRI WFS performance. These techniques include temporal, spatial, and spatial-temporal phase shifting. Temporal phase shifting allows for straightforward setup, alignment, and calibration, though its performance is degraded by changes in the atmosphere between measurements. Spatial phase shifting effectively "freezes" the atmosphere, but requires more rigorous camera calibration and alignment. Spatial-temporal phase shifting balances the benefits and challenges of both methods. This paper includes a discussion of the tradeoffs involved in selecting an appropriate phase-shifting approach for a given application. Laboratory results demonstrate the advantages and disadvantages of each technique in evaluation of SRI WFS performance.
The Self-Referencing Interferometer Wavefront Sensor (SRI WFS) has been shown to outperform conventional wavefront sensors in strong scintillation environments. Recently, the Starfire Optical Range has developed a prototype SRI to evaluate its performance. This paper discusses the purposes of optically amplifying the reference beam. Specifically, it addresses regions of operation where gain improves signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) values, and thus the SRI WFS performance. Conditions are also addressed when Amplified Spontaneous Emission (ASE) from the optical amplifier degrades the overall signal, resulting in less than acceptable SNR ratios. Laboratory measurements of SRI WFS performance with an optical amplifier are presented.
We describe a simple optical system for generating atmospheric-like turbulence in the laboratory which allows for well-controlled testing of advanced adaptive-optical components and concepts. The system models a two-layer atmosphere using static phase plates and is capable of simulating a wide range of atmospheric conditions. The design of the hardware is presented along with results from the initial system modelling describing the theory of operation.
The self-referencing interferometer (SRI) is an innovative wavefront sensor (WFS) developed specifically for applications requiring laser propagation in strong scintillation. The performance of conventional gradient sensors, like Shack-Hartmann WFSs or lateral shearing interferometers, are severely limited in these environments due to the presence of branch points in the wavefront phase. In comparison, the SRI WFS directly measures the wavefront field so its performance is not affected by the presence of branch points. Over the last two years the Starfire Optical Range has been developing a prototype SRI WFS to demonstrate its advantages in strong scintillation environments. This paper discusses some practical lessons learned in building and operating an SRI WFS and presents initial results from laboratory tests.
A noise analysis is presented for complex field estimation using a self-referencing interferometer wave front sensor with an amplified reference. The wave front sensor is constructed from a phase-shifting, point diffraction interferometer. The reference field is created by coupling a part of the incident wave front into a single mode fiber where it is optically amplified. The noise characteristics of this wave front sensor are examined in terms of the field estimation Strehl. The effects of several system parameters are examined\nobreak—shot noise, read noise, quantization noise, spontaneous emission from the amplifier, the relative intensities of the signal and reference fields, and temporal phase shifting.
Many adaptive optics systems rely on a Shack-Hartmann wave front sensor (WFS) coupled with a traditional least squares reconstructor to estimate the aberrations in the incident wave front. Unfortunately, the performance of this approach degrades in the presence of strong scintillation because, when there are intensity fluctuations in the wave front, the WFS does not measure the average phase gradient within each subaperture as assumed by the reconstruction algorithm. As scintillation increases, branch points in the wave front increase the disparity between what the WFS measures and what the reconstruction algorithm expects. A reconstruction algorithm is presented that attempts to mitigate the branch point problem by using a more realistic model for the Shack-Hartmann WFS measurements. Wave optics simulations over a variety of atmospheric conditions are used to compare the performance of this algorithm against a least squares reconstructor and a complex exponential reconstructor.
In many adaptive optical systems the standard wave front sensing and reconstruction process involves a conventional least squares reconstruction of gradient measurements obtained from a Shack-Hartman wave front sensor (WFS). This reconstruction algorithm assumes the WFS measurements are equal to the average phase gradient within each subaperture. However, this assumption does not account for the effects of scintillation in the wave front. As scintillation increases, intensity fluctuations in the wave front increase the disparity between the output of the WFS and what the reconstruction algorithm expects, which in turn causes a degradation in the performance of the reconstructor. We present an algorithm that attempts to mitigate the scintillation problem by reconstructing the real and imaginary components of the wave front using gradient and intensity information obtained from a Shack-Hartmann WFS. This algorithm estimates the wave front by inverting a more precise model of the WFS measurement process. Wave optics simulations over a variety of atmospheric conditions are used to compare the performance of our algorithm against a least squares reconstructor and a complex exponential reconstructor.
A method for determining the registration of an adaptive optical system is presented. Three deformable mirror actuators are sinusoidally driven at a high rate and the resulting gradients are measured using a Hartmann sensor. The gradient measurements are used to determine the translational, rotational, and magnificational registration of the deformable mirror relative to the Hartmann wavefront sensor. Two configurations are presented. The first is not effected by the compensation system but requires the use of auxiliary beams outside the clear aperture of the adaptive optical system. In the second configuration, the dithering actuators are within the clear aperture of the adaptive optical system. Simulation results are presented that show that the method can be used reliably in either configuration. In the second configuration, the method can be used reliably even in the presence of residual amplitude and phase aberrations.
In order to prepare for the adaptive secondary program at the new 6.5 meter MMT, we have begun a campaign to measure atmospheric turbulence with a Shack-Hartmann wavefront sensor (WFS) camera. Our first efforts, prior to second aluminization of the primary, consisted of taking turbulence data with our WFS camera with special coma-correcting optics at the MMT prime focus, without a Cassegrain secondary mirror. Our first measurements consisted of 1000 frames of approximately 10 millisecond duration, taken approximately 3 seconds apart. We measure a 5/3 power law structure function, suggesting Kolmogorov turbulence, with an r0 equals 15 cm, but with possible hints of an outer scale and tracking jitter in the structure function. At the end of our data acquisition, we deliberately put 2 micrometer of astigmatism into the primary mirror with its actuators, and in our analysis, we recover 1.7 +/- 0.3 micrometer of astigmatism. A brief analysis of the low-order modal amplitudes with the 3 second frame delay shows that there are significant self-correlations of the low-order modes even on this long time-scale.
We compare linear zonal predictors of atmospheric turbulence for adaptive optics. Zonal prediction has the possible advantage of being able to interpret and utilize wind-velocity information from the wavefront sensor better than modal prediction. For simulated open-loop atmospheric data for a 2- meter 16-subaperture AO telescope with 5 millisecond prediction and a lookback of 4 slope-vectors, we find that Widrow-Hoff Delta-Rule training of linear nets and Back- Propagation training of non-linear multilayer neural networks is quite slow, getting stuck on plateaus or in local minima. Recursive Least Squares training of linear predictors is two orders of magnitude faster and it also converges to the solution with global minimum error. We have successfully implemented Amari's Adaptive Natural Gradient Learning (ANGL) technique for a linear zonal predictor, which premultiplies the Delta-Rule gradients with a matrix that orthogonalizes the parameter space and speeds up the training by two orders of magnitude, like the Recursive Least Squares predictor. This shows that the simple Widrow-Hoff Delta-Rule's slow convergence is not a fluke. In the case of bright guidestars, the ANGL, RLS, and standard matrix-inversion least-squares (MILS) algorithms all converge to the same global minimum linear total phase error (approximately 0.18 rad2), which is only approximately 5% higher than the spatial phase error (approximately 0.17 rad2), and is approximately 33% lower than the total 'naive' phase error without prediction (approximately 0.27 rad2). ANGL can, in principle, also be extended to make non-linear neural network training feasible for these large networks, with the potential to lower the predictor error below the linear predictor error. We will soon scale our linear work to the approximately 108-subaperture MMT AO system, both with simulations and real wavefront sensor data from prime focus.
A laboratory adaptive optics system has been built for testing the wave front sensor hardware and software for the new Multiple Mirror Telescope adaptive optics system. The system will also allow different wave front reconstruction and prediction schemes to be examined. The laboratory system contains a silicon micromachined adaptive mirror with 37 electro-static actuators as well as a novel approach for generating atmospheric turbulence. The design and initial testing of the system are presented.
This paper describes the construction and testing of the Shack-Hartmann wavefront sensor camera for the new MMT adaptive optics system. Construction and use of the sensor is greatly simplified by having the 12 X 12 lenslet array permanently glued to the detector array, obviating the need for any further realignment. The detector is a frame transfer CCD made by EEV with 80 by 80 pixels, each 24 microns square, and 4 output amplifiers operated simultaneously. 3 by 3 pixel binning is used to create in effect an array of quad-cells, each centered on a spot formed by a lenslet. Centration of the lenslet images is measured to have an accuracy of 1 micrometers rms. The maximum frame rate in the binned mode is 625 Hz, when the rms noise is 4.5-5 electrons. In use at the telescope, the guide star entering the wavefront sensor passes through a 2.4 arcsec squares field stop matched to the quall-cell size, and each lenslet samples a 54 cm square segment of the atmospherically aberrated wavefront to form a guide star image at a plate scale of 60 micrometers /arcsec. Charge diffusion between adjacent detector pixels is small: the signal modulation in 0.7 arcsec seeing is reduced by only 10 percent compared to an ideal quad-cell with perfectly sharp boundaries.
A description is given for the geometry of the first generation adaptive-optical (AO) system being developed for the 6.5m single-mirror telescope that will replace the Multiple Mirror Telescope on Mt. Hopkins. The AO system consists of an adaptive secondary mirror with 330-actuators and a wave front senor composed of a 13 by 13 square subaperture array. The deformable mirror actuator vibrational modes were determined from a finite element model of the adaptive-secondary mirror. Numerical simulations in based on the finite element results were carried out to determine the expected performance of the system. Two reconstruction algorithms were compared - a least squares reconstructor and a modal equalization technique developed for this AO geometry. Strehl ratios are reported for the two algorithms for various guide star magnitudes and number of corrected wave front modes.
We report the latest progress on the design, fabrication and testing of the adaptive secondary mirror to be used in the adaptive optics system to for the 6.5m upgrade to the Steward Observatory's MMT. The adaptive secondary will use electromagnetic force actuators is conjunction with a rigid reference structure to deform a thin and flexible glass facesheet. The facesheet is fabricated with figure accuracy comparable to the surface of a traditional static secondary mirror. The flexible facesheet can however, be deformed by the actuators to conjugate the changing atmospheric aberration. Capacitive position sensor are placed at each actuators and are used to rapidly measure the position of the glass facesheet relative to the rigid reference structure. These measurements are used as feedback in a servo control-loop which maintains the desired figure of the adaptive secondary facesheet. In the proposed design the mechanical interface between the facesheet and the reference structure is limited to a small hub in the center of the facesheet. Due to heat dissipation in the electromagnetic voice-coils a temperature control system is required to maintain the facesheet of the adaptive secondary near the ambient temperature of the atmosphere. We report on laboratory test of a nearly full size 60 actuator adaptive secondary prototype. We include test of actuator stroke and position accuracy, control-loop stability, and closed-loop bandwidth.
The Multiple Mirror Telescope on Mt. Hopkins will soon be upgraded to a single 6.5 m primary mirror.An adaptive- optical system, featuring a thin-shell, adaptive-secondary mirror with 330 voice-coil actuators is being developed for this new telescope. The thin-shell mirror is supported by a thick, concave aluminum substrate which also holds the actuator control and monitoring electronics and serves as the reference surface. With the actuator electronics dissipating heat into the substrate, the thermal behavior of the aluminum reference plate becomes as important issue. This paper presents results form tow experiments designed to determine the thermal behavior of the reference plate.
In recent years several methods have been presented for optimizing closed-loop adaptive-optical (AO) wave-front re- construction algorithms. These algorithms, which can significantly improve the performance of AO systems, compute the reconstruction matrix using measured atmospheric statistics. Since atmospheric conditions vary on time scales of minutes, it becomes necessary to constantly update the reconstruction so that it adjusts to the changing atmospheric statistics. This paper presents a method for adaptively optimizing the reconstructor of a closed-loop AO system in real time. The method relies on recursive least square techniques to track the temporal and spatial correlations of the turbulent wave-front. The performance of this method is examined for a sample scenario in which the AO control algorithm attempts to compensate for signal processing latency by reconstructing the future value of the wave-front from a combination of past and current wave-front sensor measurements. For this case, the adaptive reconstruction algorithm yields Strehl ratios within a few percent of those obtained by an optimal reconstructor derived from a priori knowledge of the strength of the turbulence and the velocity of the wind. This level of performance can be a dramatic improvement over the Strehls achievable with a conventional least squares reconstructor.
We report the latest progress on the design, fabrication and testing of the adaptive secondary mirror to be used in the adaptive optics system to for the 6.5m upgrade to the Steward Observatory's MMT. The adaptive secondary will use electromagnetic force actuators in conjunction with a rigid reference structure to deformed a thin and flexible glass facesheet. The facesheet is fabricate with figure accuracy comparable to the surface of a traditional static secondary mirror. The flexible facesheet can however, be deformed by the actuators to conjugate the changing atmospheric aberration. Capacitive position sensors are placed at each actuator and are used to rapidly measure the position of the glass facesheet relative to the rigid reference structure. These measurements are used as feedback in a servo control- loop which maintains the desired figure of the adaptive secondary facesheet. In the proposed design the mechanical interface between the facesheet and the reference structure is limited to a small hub in the center of the facesheet. Due to heat dissipation in the electromagnetic voice-coils a temperature control system is required to maintain the facesheet of the adaptive secondary near the ambient temperature of the atmosphere. We report on laboratory test of a nearly full size 60 actuator adaptive secondary prototype. We include test of actuator stroke and position accuracy, control-loop stability, and closed-loop bandwidth.
The Multiple Mirror Telescope (MMT) is now being replaced by a single 6.5m telescope which will have an integral adaptive optics system optimized for near IR operation. We illustrate key results obtained with low-order adaptive optics at the MMT and report on progress on the major components of the system for the new telescope. We also give a brief update on the status of the telescope itself. First light for the adaptive system is expected in mid 1999.
An experimental method is presented for optimizing the wavefront reconstruction algorithm of a closed-loop adaptive optics system employed with an astronomical telescope. This technique uses wavefront sensor measurements from an independent scoring sensor to calculate adjustments to the reconstruction algorithm which will minimize the residual mean-square phase distortion. The method applies to closed-loop adaptive optics systems incorporating one or more guidestars, a wavefront reconstruction algorithm that is equivalent to a matrix multiply, and one or more deformable mirrors. Simulation results are reported for the case of a hybrid adaptive optics system incorporating one natural guidestar, one laser guidestar, and one deformable mirror. Differences in the spatial resolution of the wavefront sensors for the two guidestars are considered, particularly reduced resolution natural guidestar sensors for use with dim stars.
The flexure-beam micromirror device (FBMD) developed by Texas Instruments, Inc., is presently being considered for use in communication and imaging systems. This device consists of thousands of individually addressable micromirror elements with phase-mostly responses, greater than 70% active area, and response times of 10 microseconds. Accurate determination of individual mirror element amplitude and phase responses versus address voltage is important for understanding the effect this device will have in the various applications. an experimental setup based on a laser microscopic interferometric technique was used to precisely map the surface displacement of individual mirror elements as a function of address voltage. The test structure consisted of an 8 X 8 array of 25 X 25 micrometers square flexure-beam elements. A phase response of greater than 2(pi) radians at a wavelength of 632.8 nm was observed for address voltages ranging from 0 to 5.8 V. The phase versus voltage relationship is shown to be nonlinear.
The new flexure-beam micromirror (FBM) spatial light modulator devices developed by Texas Instruments Inc. have characteristics that enable superior acquisition, tracking, and pointing in communications and other applications. FBM devices can have tens of thousands of square micromirror elements, each as small as 20 microns on a side, each spaced relative to neighbors so that optical efficiency exceeds 90 percent, and each individually controlled with response times as small as 10 microseconds for piston-like motions that cover more than one-half optical wavelength. These devices may enable order-of-magnitude improvements in space-bandwidth product, efficiency, and speed relative to other spatial light modulator devices that could be used to generate arbitrary coherent light patterns in real time. However, the amplitude and phase of each mirror element cannot be specified separately because there is only one control voltage for each element. This issue can be addressed by adjusting the control voltages so that constructive and destructive interference in the coherent light reflected from many elements produces the desired far field coherent light pattern. Appropriate control voltages are best determined using a robust software optimization procedure such as simulated annealing. Simulated annealing yields excellent results, but it is not real time (it may require hours of execution time on workstation-class computers). An approach that permits real-time applications stores control voltages determined off-line by simulated annealing that produce key desired far field coherent light beam shapes. These stored results are then used as training data for radial basis function neural networks that interpolate in real time between the training cases.
Smart zooming refers to certain digital image processing algorithms that enable the examination of detail ordinarily obscured by pixelation effects. These algorithms use radial basis function interpolation to smooth image blockiness due, for example, to magnification by pixel replication. They may permit more smoothing flexibility while retaining more image detail than conventional convolution smoothing methods.
A fundamental problem of adaptive optics systems is the very narrow corrected field-of-view (FOV) which can be obtained due to the fact that turbulence is extended in altitude throughout the atmosphere. The correctable FOV is on the order of 5 to 10 microradians in the visible. Previous concepts to broaden the corrected FOV have been hardware-oriented, requiring multiple wavefront sensors (WFS) and multiple deformable mirrors. In this paper we analyze the average performance of an image measurement and post processing technique which uses simultaneous measurements of a short exposure compensated image measured in an off-axis direction, and an additional WFS measurement taken in the off-axis direction. Results are presented for infinite altitude WFS beacons driving both the WFS for the adaptive optics and the WFS looking in the off-axis direction, a variety of seeing and WFS light level conditions, and off-axis angles from two to six times the isoplanatic angle. We find that this technique provides a significant boost in the average effective transfer function out to at least six times the isoplanatic angle.
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