We present a Mach-Zehnder interferometer to characterize semiconductor microlenses in transmission. We therefore
make use of a wavelength of 1550nm with the possibility of expansion towards the IR spectrum. In this paper, the
concept of our interferometer as well as the set-up is explained. We demonstrate the working principle and
measurements on fused silica and silicon microlenses and benchmark the experimental results with measurement data
obtained with well established micro-optics instrumentation tools.
Deep Proton Writing (DPW) is a rapid prototyping technology allowing for the fabrication of micro-optical and micro-mechanical
components in PMMA, which are compatible with low-cost replication technologies. Using DPW, a high-precision
2D fiber connector featuring conically-shaped micro-holes for easy fiber insertion, was realized. When
populating these fiber connectors by fiber insertion and fixation, a critical issue is the accurate control of the fiber
protrusion. The use of laser interferometry to measure the fiber's facet position with respect to the connector surface to
within a few micrometers, is inconvenient in view of the measurement range as compared to the fiber dimensions. In this
paper, we propose an interferometric method for in-situ monitoring of the fiber insertion depth, based on the
phenomenon of low temporal coherence light interference in a Twyman - Green setup. In addition, achieving a few
micrometers measurement range with low coherence light requires vertical scanning of the sample under test. The design
of the experimental setup and the achieved measurement results are shown and discussed.
The concept of the fabrication process of glass microlenses integrated with silicon and polymer replicas is presented.
These kinds of microlenses are formed using a silicon master which is wet etched in alkaline solutions (anisotropic
etching) and/or in acid solutions (isotropic etching). The control of the times and the selection of the solutions, joined
with the designs of the mask for conventional photolithography and the quality of the silicon wafers are the key for
obtaining the desired shapes and sizes. The fabricated moulds are used to replicate microlenses in polymer by the
standard well known replication technologies and also to fabricate glass microlenses integrated on a silicon frame.
Micro-optical components are of growing interest and used in very different applications such as displays,
biophotonics, optical-data communication... More in particular, refractive microlenses and refractive microlens
arrays are widely used. The fabrication of these components has been extensively investigated and today
different technologies are already commercially available such as thermal reflow, laser ablation, reactive ion
etching, microject printing... These technologies allow the fabrication of high-quality microlenses in different
materials, however these fabrication methods are often too expensive and too time-consuming for prototyping.
In our facilities, we implemented Deep Proton Writing (DPW) as a rapid prototyping technology to fabricate
plastic refractive microlenses and microlens arrays. To reduce the calibration time and minimize the influence of uncontrollable external parameters we built a transmission Mach-Zehnder interferometer allowing to monitor in situ and in real-time the growing of the refractive microlenses. This means that we can stop the growing process of the microlenses as soon as the predefined specifications are reached. Additionally we can determine out of this interferometric data the geometrical properties and optical quality of each of the microlenses. We have studied the precision and accuracy of our interferometer for the characterization of the latter components. In this paper, we will present the latest results showing the performance of our set-up and the resulting enhancements of our technology.
One of the remaining challenges to solve the interconnection bottlenecks at the Printed Circuit Board (PCB) and Multi-Chip-Module (MCM) level, is to adequately replace the galvanic interconnects with high-performance, low-cost, compact and reliable micro-photonic alternatives. At our labs of the Vrije Universiteit Brussel we are therefore optimizing and deploying a rapid micro-optical prototyping technology for micro-optical interconnect modules, which we call Deep Proton Writing (DPW). An advantage of the DPW process is that it can create steep micro-optical surfaces, micro-holes, micro-lenses and alignment features in one irradation step. Hence, relative accuracies are very well controlled. In this report, we will address more specifically the following components, made each with the DPW technology: 1) out-of-plane couplers for optical wave-guides embedded in PCB, 2) peripheral fiber ribbons and two dimensional single- and multimode fiber connectors for high-speed parallel optical connections, and 3) intra-MCM level optical interconnections via free-space optical modules. We will give special attention to the optical tolerancing and the opto-mechanical integration of components in their packages. We use both a sensitivity analysis to misalignment errors and Monte-Carlo simulations. It is our aim to investigate the whole component integration chain from the optoelectronic device packaging to the micro-opto-mechanical assembly of the interconnect module.
With our in-house technology, Deep Proton Writing (DPW) we fabricate, apart from other components, spherical refractive microlenses. Till now, the fabrication of cylindrical microlenses was an unexplored field within our technology. In this paper we will show how we can use Deep Proton Writing as an effective technology for the fabrication of cylindrical microlenses and microlens arrays with specific design parameters. We will explain the adjustments we made to our standard fabrication process as well as the investigation procedure we followed to fulfill our goal.
One of the grand challenges in solving the interconnection bottlenecks at the Printed Circuit Board (PCB) and Multi-Chip-Module (MCM) level, is to adequately replace the PCB and intra-MCM galvanic interconnects with high-performance, low-cost, compact and reliable micro-photonic alternatives. In our labs at the Vrije Universiteit Brussel we are therefore focusing on the continuous development of a rapid prototyping technology for micro-optical interconnect modules, which we call Deep Proton Writing (DPW).The special feature of this prototyping technology is that it is compatible with commercial low-cost mass replication techniques such as micro injection moulding and hot embossing. We will address more specifically in this paper the following components: 1) out-of-plane couplers for optical wave-guides embedded in PCB, 2) peripheral fiber ribbons and two dimensional single- and multimode fiber connectors for high-speed parallel optical connections, and 3) intra-MCM level optical interconnections via free-space optical modules.
We furthermore give special attention to the optical tolerancing and the opto-mechanical integration of the components. We use both a sensitivity analysis to misalignment errors and Monte Carlo simulations. It is our aim to investigate the whole component integration chain from the optoelectronic device to the micro-opto-mechanical components constituting the interconnect module.
Optimization of the optical quality of optical-grade germanium components requires an in-depth investigation of the different contributions to the optical loss in germanium. In this paper we therefore focus on this optical characterization. We give an overview of possible characterization techniques to determine surface roughness, surface/bulk absorption and refractive index inhomogeneities and we highlight the obtained optical characteristics. To conclude we select the most appropriate non-destructive characterization tool for each optical parameter.
Today different technologies exist that allow the fabrication of individual high-quality micro-optical refractive components and more in particular spherical microlenses. In this paper we will focus on the characterization of the latter components obtained with Deep Lithography with Protons (DLP). In the past we first fabricated the DLP microlenses and secondly a full geometrical and optical characterization was performed. However, this working method is very time consuming due to the amount of experiments needed for a complete calibration of our fabrication process. Therefore, we developed an interferometer for a real-time in situ sag characterization of the microlenses. In a first step we built a Mach-Zehnder interferometer working in the visible wavelength range and demonstrated its proof-of-principle for the determination of the microlens sag. In a next step we then transferred the concept of this interferometer to the closed reactor in which the in-diffusion of monomer vapour in the irradiated zones takes place. This novel approach will allow us to continuously monitor the volume expansion of the desired areas until spherical microlenses with a specific lens sag are obtained.
In this paper we present the state-of-the-art of Deep Lithography with Protons (DLP), a technology that we have adopted and optimized to rapidly prototype three-dimensional micro-optical components and high-aspect ratio micro-mechanical structures in Poly(Methyl MethAcrylate). In particular we focus on the fabrication of individual plastic refractive microlenses featuring a wide range of numerical apertures, diameters and pitches and their 2D arrays. We give a detailed description of the microlens fabrication technique and the calibration procedure that goes along with it. We highlight the quantitative geometrical and optical characteristics of these DLP microlenses and we demonstrate the reproducibility of their fabrication process. We also illustrate the prototyping flexibility of DLP by making arrays featuring microlenses with different sags, pitches and diameters.
We present an experimental and theoretical study of optical feedback in a semiconductor laser for the case of an extremely short external cavity (EC) configuration. When the length of the EC is changed both the output power and the voltage drop onto the laser are modulated with a period of half of the solitary laser wavelength. We also perform modulation experiments in which the EC length is modulated with amplitude corresponding to the half of the solitary laser wavelength and with different signal shapes. In this way we prove that by using optical feedback we are able to detect very small features. Such detection is of general interest from an application point of view, e.g. for optical data readouts, resulting in a reduced number of optical components. Optical feedback also affects the frequency of the laser light and results in a longitudinal mode hopping. With increasing the EC length we observe mode hops between neighboring solitary laser modes followed by large jumps at the EC frequency splitting. These large EC mode hops can be exploited for broad band frequency tuning of the emitted light. We also study the dependence of the amplitude and the period of the EC mode hops on the EC length. We reveal the existence of a cut-off EC length of a few micrometers for which the amplitude of the EC mode hops reaches a maximum and then strongly decreases. We give a theoretical explanation of our experimental findings based on Fabry-Perot resonant condition for coupled cavities.
Semiconductor lasers can be used simultaneously as optical sources
and optical sensors, as they are extremely sensitive to a small
amount of coherent optical feedback. We present a survey on experimental results on optical feedback in semiconductor lasers
and on different approaches to describe its effect on the laser
properties. We show that for long and moderate long external
cavities (hundreds of meters down to centimeters) the Lang-Kobayashi delay model, multiple delays and multimode delay rate equation models are in very good agreement with experiments on edge emitting lasers (EELs) and vertical-cavity surface-emitting lasers (VCSELs). We present examples of frequency and polarization mode hopping, periodic and quasiperiodic behavior, different routes to chaos, regular pulse packages, high frequency pulsations and stochastic and coherence resonance, that all have been experimentally and numerically demonstrated. Suitable models for studying laser diodes subject to optical feedback from extremely short external cavity, or ESEC (of the order of the wavelength) are the composite cavity and the multimode butt coupling models that either consider the field
amplitudes after multiple reflections in the external cavity (EC)
as stationary or treat the whole compound cavity at once. Numerical and experimental studies showed that optical feedback in ESEC leads to detectable change of the laser output power or the voltage drop over the laser for a small change of either the phase or the optical feedback strength. As an example, we discuss experimental and numerical results on spectral and polarization properties of VCSELs subject of insensitive optical feedback from ESEC. The wavelength and the current of polarization switching between the two linearly polarized fundamental modes of the VCSEL are periodically modulated with the external cavity length. High contrast polarization switching is thus possible for quarter-wavelength change of external cavity length. In the case of EEL we experimentally demonstrate that with changing the length of the EC the emitted power, the wavelength and the laser voltage are periodically modulated. We explain the longitudinal mode-hopping between the neighboring composite cavity modes followed by large jumps at the external cavity frequency splitting as a result of the spectral modulation of the effective losses of the composite cavity system.
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