This work is part of the inter-laboratory collaboration to study the stability of seven distinct sets of state-of-the-art organic photovoltaic (OPVs) devices prepared by leading research laboratories. All devices have been shipped to and degraded at the Danish Technical University (DTU, formerly RISO-DTU) up to 1830 hours in accordance with established ISOS-3 protocols under defined illumination conditions. In this work we present a summary of the degradation response observed for the NREL sample, an inverted OPV of the type ITO/ZnO/P3HT:PCBM/PEDOT:PSS/Ag/Al, under full sun stability test. The results reported from the combination of the different characterization techniques results in a proposed degradation mechanism. The final conclusion is that the failure of the photovoltaic response of the device is mainly due to the degradation of the electrodes and not to the active materials of the solar cell.
Seven distinct sets (n ≥ 12) of state of the art organic photovoltaic devices were prepared by leading research laboratories in a collaboration
planned at the Third International Summit on Organic Photovoltaic Stability (ISOS-3). All devices were shipped to DTU and characterized
simultaneously up to 1830 h in accordance with established ISOS-3 protocols under three distinct illumination conditions: accelerated full sun
simulation; low level indoor fluorescent lighting; and dark storage with daily measurement under full sun simulation. Three nominally
identical devices were used in each experiment both to provide an assessment of the homogeneity of the samples and to distribute samples for
a variety of post soaking analytical measurements at six distinct laboratories enabling comparison at various stages in the degradation of the
devices. Characterization includes current-voltage curves, light beam induced current (LBIC) imaging, dark lock-in thermography (DLIT),
photoluminescence (PL), electroluminescence (EL), in situ incident photon-to-electron conversion efficiency (IPCE), time of flight secondary
ion mass spectrometry (TOF-SIMS), cross sectional electron microscopy (SEM), UV visible spectroscopy, fluorescence microscopy, and
atomic force microscopy (AFM). Over 100 devices with more than 300 cells were used in the study. We present here design of the device
sets, results both on individual devices and uniformity of device sets from the wide range of characterization methods applied at different
stages of aging under the three illumination conditions. We will discuss how these data can help elucidate the degradation mechanisms as well
as the benefits and challenges associated with the unprecedented size of the collaboration.
Organic photovoltaic represents an emerging technology thanks to its ability to give flexible, light weight and large-area
devices, with low production cost by simple solution process or printing technologies. But these devices are known to
exhibit low resistance to the combined action of sunlight, oxygen and water. This paper is focused on the behaviour of
the active layer of the devices under illumination in the presence and absence of oxygen.
The monitoring of the evolution of the chemical structure of MDMO-PPV submitted to accelerated artificial ageing
permitted the elucidation of the mechanisms by which the polymer degrades. Extrapolation of the data to natural ageing
suggested that, if well protected from oxygen (encapsulation),
MDMO-PPV:PCBM based active layer is
photochemically stable for several years in use conditions. In addition the charge transfer between the two materials was
observed to remain efficient under exposure.
The study of P3HT:PCBM blends allowed to point out the Achilles heel of P3HT towards the impact of light. In
addition, P3HT:PCBM blends were shown to be much more stable under illumination than MDMO:PCBM blends.
Preliminary results devoted to the AFM monitoring of the morphological modifications of P3HT:PCBM blends under
the impact of light are also reported.
Carbazol-containing polymers were shown to be good reliefographic photosensitive substrates for holographic
registration. Holographic images with satisfactory properties were obtained with carbazolic copolymers containing
carbazolylethylmethacrylate and octylmethacrylate units and iodoform as sensitizer. The final goal of this study is to find
the best copolymer formulation ensuring large amount of data stored with a high transfer rate and an optimized lifetime
of the hologram and of the host polymer. It is then crucial to elucidate the involved photochemical mechanisms. We first
carried out irradiations at 405 nm (wavelength of the laser diode used for holographic recording) in order to follow the
photostructuration of the doped polymer. Spectroscopic analyses showed that the formation of a charge transfer complex
is observed and its increase of concentration in the polymer could be followed versus exposure time. We also focused
our attention on the durability of the hologram and of the polymeric matrix itself. Under irradiations representative of
natural ageing (λ>300 nm), we have shown that the complex is successively formed and destroyed and that the
photodegradation of the polymer matrix was also observed.
Agar is a natural polysaccharide which, when doped with dichromate ammonium, can be considered as a promising
light sensitive material used for real time hologram recording. The volume transmission gratings were recorded with a
Kypton laser at 413 nm and they were read in real-time with a He/Ne laser at 632.8 nm contrary to dichromated gelatin.
The so obtained holograms formed were phase holograms due to a refraction index modulation. The optimisation of
chemical and physical parameters was investigated in order to form high quality holograms. It was demonstrated the
crucial role played by the remaining water in the final film on the value of the diffraction efficiency. In the optimal
conditions, a maximum diffraction efficiency of 37 % was attained. Both on-off experiments and the storage of the
exposed materials at room temperature and in the dark reveal that the holograms were stable. An attempt to rationalize
the set of results in terms of chemical structure of the polymeric matrix and of its ability to stabilize chromium (V) is
presented.
A comparative investigation of the photochemical behavior of dichromated gelatin (DCG), dichromated polyacrylic acid (DCPAA) and dichromated polyvinylalcohol (DCPVA) gave evidence for the similarity of the photochemical behaviour involved when recording holograms in DCG and DCPVA. Chromium (V), the chromium species resulting from the
photoredox process between the starting chromium (VI) (dichromate) and the polymeric chain, was stable likely strongly complexed in gelatine and polyvinylalcohol. The quantum yields of the reaction are high and similar for both reactions. On the contrary, even though chromium (V) was also formed during the primary process in DCPAA, this species was quite unstable and disappeared as soon as the irradiation was stopped. The behavior observed in DCG can be assigned to the presence of OH groups on the polymeric chain, these groups being the only groups present in polyvinylalcohol. Actually, the stability and the state of complexation of the different chromium species was completely opposite in the two matrices: the stabilization of chromium (V) resulting from the photochemical charge transfer in DCPVA, by complexation with PVA is in contrast to what was observed in DCPAA where chromium (V) was highly instable. Regarding chromium (III), the final reduction chromium species, it was complexed in PAA and not in PVA. The experiments performed on films of DC (PVA+PAA) with only a few percents of PAA gave evidence for the strong influence of the presence of the carboxylic groups on the photochemical behavior: the rate of the formation and the
stability of chromium species that reflects the chelating properties of the polymeric matrix. The photochemical results were correlated to the results obtained when recording holograms in the corresponding material: a very nice agreement appeared between the two sets of results. An innovative approach combining the monitoring of the structural modification of the polymeric matrix and the fate of the various chromium species ((VI), (V) and (III)) was then implemented. For the first time, it was established that chromium (V) was at the origin of the cross-linking implied in the hologram formation by acting as a bridge between hydroxyl groups of the polymeric chains. A second unanswered question was also elucidated. The improvement brought by ammonium dichromate with respect to potassium dichromate involves amide groups as additional chelating sites for chromium (V) resulting in the increase of the matrix cross-linking.
The photochemical behavior of dichromated polyvinylalcohol (DCPVA) films was analysed upon exposure at 365 nm in connection with the hologram quality recorded in such a photosensitive material. The evolution of both involved species, chromium and polyvinylalcohol, were quantified by implementing an innovative approach. This approach combines the monitoring of the structural modification of the polymeric matrix and the fate of the various chromium species ((VI), (V) and (III)). For the first time, it was established that chromium (V) was at the origin of the cross-linking implied in the hologram formation by acting as a bridge between hydroxyl groups of the polymeric chains. A second unanswered question was also elucidated. The improvement brought by ammonium dichromate with respect to potassium dichromate involves amide groups as additional chelating sites for chromium (V) resulting in the increase of the matrix cross-linking.
Irradiation of dichromated polyvinyl alcohol and dichromated polyacrylic acid DC(PVA-PAA) at 365 nm was
investigated in order to understand the involvement of the polymeric matrix in the reduction process of the Cr(VI)
leading to the formation of the hologram. The photochemical evolution of the matrix was directly correlated to the
disappearance of the absorbing species, chromium(VI). A special attention was paid to the absorption profile of the
films. Due to the impermeability of the polymer, no oxidation proceeded. The reduction of Cr(VI) into Cr(V) induced the
formation of carboxylate species perfectly correlated with the consumption of carboxylic groups. Besides the acido-basic
reaction undergone by the carboxylic groups, the reduction of Cr(VI) provoked the cross-linking of the polymer. Each
polymer appears to play a specific role in the mechanism.
The reversible reaction that takes place in the writable, readable, erasable (WRE) photosensitive materials involving fulgides (ABERCHROM 540 and 670) was investigated with a photochemical and holographic approach. It appeared that the fatigue of the photosensitive material was strongly dependent on the properties of the matrix used as a support. This was precisely established both by spectroscopic monitoring (λmax, absorbancemax, photo-stationary state) and by following the diffraction efficiency η values. There was a nice correlation between the evolution of the spectral features of C isomer and of the η values all along the WRE cycles. This combined approach was applied to four different supports: PVK, PMMA, PEPC/PS and epoxy RESIN. So for both fulgides: (1) PVK, frequently used in optics, appears as being the worst one. The starting fulgides were destroyed after only a few WRE cycles. This was assigned to the intrinsic photoaging of PVK whose absorption in UV domain is far from negligible and leads to the formation of radical species able to attack the fulgide. (2) Holograms recorded in PMMA and PEPC/PS present similar behavior with a loss of ≈10% after 8 cycles. (3) Epoxy RESIN appears to be a very good candidate for these reversible systems; no fatigue was observed after 40 cycles. It has to be attributed to the matrix in which the detrimental rotation process, giving rise to the non photochromic Z isomer, is strongly inhibited.
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