Fluorescence Lifetime Imaging (FLIM) is a powerful technique that measures the decay time of fluorophores present in tissue samples alluding to their constituent molecules. FLIM has gained popularity in biomedical imaging for applications such as detecting cancerous tumors, surgical guidance, etc. However, conventional FLIM systems are limited by a reduced number of spectral bands and long acquisition time. Moreover, the large footprint, complexity, and cost of the instrumentation make it difficult for clinical applications. In this paper, we demonstrate a reconstruction-based hyperspectral detector that can resolve decay time and intensities in broad spectral ranges while providing high sensitivity, high gain, and fast response time. The hyperspectral detector is comprised of an array of efficient, ultrafast avalanche photodetectors integrated with nanophotonic structures. We utilize different nanostructures in the detectors to modulate light-matter interactions in spectral channels. This allows us to computationally reconstruct the spectral profile of the incoming fluorescence spectrum without the need for additional filters or dispersive optics. Also, the nanophotonic structures enhance efficiency (by a factor of 2 to 10 over different wavelengths) while providing fast response time. An innovative detector design has been employed to reduce the breakdown of the avalanche photodetectors to -7.8V while maintaining high gain (~50) across the spectral range. Therefore, enabling low light detection with a high signal-to-noise ratio for FLIM applications. Added spectral channels would provide valuable information about tissue materials, morphology, and disease diagnosis. Such innovative hyperspectral sensors can now be integrated on-chip capable of miniaturizing the FLIM system and making it a commercially viable tool for clinical use. This technology has the potential to revolutionize the current FLIM system with improved detection capabilities opening doors for new horizons.
A compact assembly of photodetectors, incorporating specialized surface nanostructures, holds the potential to significantly enhance imaging capabilities by acquiring multi-dimensional data, including spectral profiles, temporal responses, and spatial resolution. This advancement is achievable by engineering individual ultrafast detectors exhibiting distinct responses to identical illumination while leveraging artificial intelligence (AI)-driven computational imaging. This talk will demonstrate how these capabilities can substantially miniaturize the physical dimensions of existing imaging and spectroscopic systems and elevate overall system sensitivity. These advancements can be applied to various fields, including noninvasive real-time detection and monitoring of molecules for medical diagnostics, biological sensing, and food quality assessment.
The direct-current (DC) linearity of a photodiode is a parameter that indicates the direct proportionality between the input optical power and the output response current. This linear relationship defines the optical power range using which the performance limits of the photodiode control circuitry such as A/D conversion, trans-impedance amplifier, and quenching circuits are designed. Due to the absorption saturation and self-heating, the response current of the photodiode starts to saturate at higher optical power. A narrow absorber region in state-of-the-art photodiodes (avalanche and PIN photodiodes) results in an early absorption saturation in addition to a reduction in absorption efficiency. We present a photon-trapping microstructure (PTMS) equipped-avalanche photodiodes (APD) to enhance the absorption efficiency and DC linearity. We have fabricated a mesa-based APD using complementary metal oxide semiconductor (CMOS)-compatible processes. We present a DC current-voltage comparison of APDs in the dark and under the illumination of a wide wavelength range varying from 640 nm to 1100 nm. The fabricated PTMS-equipped APDs exhibit 5× increase in the external quantum efficiency as opposed to that of a flat device and a 70 unit multiplication gain. Further, the PTMS-equipped APDs demonstrate an increased linearity of 106.04 dB in comparison to 104.83 dB linearity in the flat device. The introduction of PTMS, despite the reduction of net-absorber volume, enables a uniform spread of the input illumination power by bending the light laterally and results in increased absorption efficiency and DC linearity.
Addressing the persistent speed-efficiency trade-off, advanced photodetector designs are increasingly incorporating nanophotonic structures to enhance detection efficiency. However, contemporary detector technologies continue to grapple with issues of high-power consumption and limited scalability potential. Embedded nanostructures in photodetectors have already been demonstrated to improve efficiency, gain, and slight improvement in high-speed performance. This paper presents a unique, scalable detector design that leverages nanophotonic enhancement while delivering an ultra-high response time with sub-picosecond full-width-half-maximum for 450 nm illumination wavelength with low breakdown voltage (~8V). Our innovative design strategy involves etching nanoholes into conventional p-i-n photodetectors (1 μm absorbing layer) and doping alternate nanoholes with p+ and n+ doping. The nanoholes are etched all the way through the intrinsic layer to connect with the top and bottom highly doped p+ and n+ doped layer forming a composite vertical-lateral electric field in the photodetector. This technique drastically reduces the effective carrier transport length to mere hundreds of nanometers without diminishing the photon absorption area. As a result, the timing response improves significantly compared to conventional models achieving sharp rise time of ~0.6 ps, fall time of ~8.5 ps, and full width half maximum of <4 ps. Furthermore, the design offers scalability along with advances in lithography processes, setting a promising direction for ultra-high-speed detectors scaling down to <1 ps response time suitable for emerging applications.
A compact assembly of photodetectors, enhanced with innovative surface nanostructures, can significantly enhance imaging modalities. This advancement captures multi-dimensional data, including spectral profiles, temporal responses, and spatial resolution. Achieving this breakthrough centers on the meticulous engineering of individual ultrafast detectors, which exhibit diverse responses to identical illumination conditions. A pivotal role is played by the integration of artificial intelligence (AI)-driven computational imaging, which optimizes the obtained multi-dimensional data. This paper demonstrates the benefits of such an imaging method. Specifically, we highlight the potential reductions in the physical scale of current systems, significant enhancements in system sensitivity, and substantial cost reduction. The potential applications include molecular fluorescence signal detection, chem-biological imaging, advanced LiDAR systems, and state-of-the-art focal plane arrays.
The photosensitivity of silicon is inherently very low in the visible electromagnetic spectrum, and it drops rapidly beyond 800 nm in near-infrared wavelengths. We have experimentally demonstrated a technique utilizing photon-trapping surface structures to show a prodigious improvement of photoabsorption in 1-μm-thin silicon, surpassing the inherent absorption efficiency of gallium arsenide for a broad spectrum. The photon-trapping structures allow the bending of normally incident light by almost 90 deg to transform into laterally propagating modes along the silicon plane. Consequently, the propagation length of light increases, contributing to more than one order of magnitude improvement in absorption efficiency in photodetectors. This high-absorption phenomenon is explained by finite-difference time-domain analysis, where we show an enhanced photon density of states while substantially reducing the optical group velocity of light compared to silicon without photon-trapping structures, leading to significantly enhanced light–matter interactions. Our simulations also predict an enhanced absorption efficiency of photodetectors designed using 30- and 100-nm silicon thin films that are compatible with CMOS electronics. Despite a very thin absorption layer, such photon-trapping structures can enable high-efficiency and high-speed photodetectors needed in ultrafast computer networks, data communication, and imaging systems, with the potential to revolutionize on-chip logic and optoelectronic integration.
We present a germanium “Ge-on-Si” CMOS image sensor with backside illumination for the near-infrared (NIR) electromagnetic waves (wavelength range 300 to 1700 nm) detection essential for optical sensor technology. The microholes help to enhance the optical efficiency and extend the range to the 1.7-μm wavelength. We demonstrate an optimization for the width and depth of the microholes for maximal absorption in the NIR. We show a reduction in the crosstalk by employing thin SiO2 deep trench isolation in between the pixels. Finally, we show a 26 to 50% reduction in the device capacitance with the introduction of a microhole. Such CMOS-compatible Ge-on-Si sensors will enable high-density, ultrafast, and efficient NIR imaging.
Silicon avalanche photodiodes (Si-APD) are widely explored due to their high sensitivity, rapid response time, high quantum efficiency, intrinsic multiplication gain, and low signal-to-noise ratio. We present an experimental demonstration of a wavelength selective APD stack epitaxially grown in two different doping orders:–1) N-on-P and 2) P-on-N.We present a performance comparison between N-on-P and P-on-N based on the quantum external efficiency (EQE), Ion/Ioff ratio, and the reverse biased dark state leakage current. By reversing the doping from P-on-N to N-on-P, we show a 40% increase in the EQE. By introducing the photon-trapping hole array we show a 60% improvement in the EQE. We have utilized a low temperature (450oC) forming gas (5% H2 and 95% N2) annealing process to passivate the surface states and show a dark state leakage current improvement from sub- 10nA to sub-1nA current range. The proposed devices are complementary metal oxide semiconductor process compatible and can enable ‘detectors-on-chip’ technology for numerous applications such as internet-of-things, data communication, biomedical imaging, high-speed cloud computing, remote sensing, as well as single-photon detection.
Controlling light penetration depth in Avalanche Photodiodes (APDs) and Single Photon Avalanche Diodes (SPADs) play a major role in achieving high multiplication gain by delivering light near the multiplication region where the electric field is the strongest. Such control in the penetration depth for a particular wavelength of light has been previously demonstrated using integrated photon-trapping nanostructures. In this paper, we show that an optimized periodic nanostructure design can control the penetration depth for a wide range of visible and near-infrared wavelengths simultaneously. A conventional silicon APD structure suffers from high photocarrier loss due to recombination for shorter wavelengths as they are absorbed near the surface region, while silicon has low absorption efficiency for longer wavelengths. This optimized nanostructure design allows shorter wavelengths of light to penetrate deeper into the device, circumventing recombination sites while trapping the longer wavelengths in the thin silicon device by bending the vertically propagating light into horizontal modes. This manipulation of penetration depth improves the absorption in the device, increasing light sensitivity while nanostructures reduce the reflectance from the top surface. While delivery of light near the multiplication region reduces the photogenerated carrier loss and shortens transit time, leading to high multiplication gain in APDs and SPADs over a wide spectral range. These high gain APDs and SPADs will find their potential applications in Time-Of-Flight Positron Emission Tomography (TOF-PET), Fluorescence Lifetime Imaging Microscopy (FLIM), and pulse oximetry where high detection efficiency and high gain-bandwidth is required over a multitude of wavelengths.
Optical spectrometers are widely used scientific equipment with many applications involving material characterization, chemical analysis, disease diagnostics, surveillance, etc. Emerging applications in biomedical and communication fields have boosted the research in the miniaturization of spectrometers. Recently, reconstruction-based spectrometers have gained popularity for their compact size, easy maneuverability, and versatile utilities. These devices exploit the superior computational capabilities of recent computers to reconstruct hyperspectral images using detectors with distinct responsivity to different wavelengths. In this paper, we propose a CMOS compatible reconstruction-based on-chip spectrometer pixels capable of spectrally resolving the visible spectrum with 1 nm spectral resolution maintaining high accuracy (<95 %) and low footprint (8 μm × 8 μm), all without the use of any additional filters. A single spectrometer pixel is formed by an array of silicon photodiodes, each having a distinct absorption spectrum due to their integrated nanostructures, this allows us to computationally reconstruct the hyperspectral image. To achieve distinct responsivity, we utilize random photon-trapping nanostructures per photodiode with different dimensions and shapes that modify the coupling of light at different wavelengths. This also reduces the spectrometer pixel footprint (comparable to conventional camera pixels), thus improving spatial resolution. Moreover, deep trench isolation (DTI) reduces the crosstalk between adjacent photodiodes. This miniaturized spectrometer can be utilized for real-time in-situ biomedical applications such as Fluorescence Lifetime Imaging Microscopy (FLIM), pulse oximetry, disease diagnostics, and surgical guidance.
The gain in Avalanche Photodiodes (APDs) and Single Photon Avalanche Diodes (SPADs) is dependent on the probability of photo-generated carriers to trigger an avalanche process, which is correlated to the depth where a photon is absorbed by the photodiode. For silicon photodiodes, most of the photons with wavelengths in the visible spectrum are absorbed near the surface in the highly doped contact regions where the recombination rate is high. Thus, they do not contribute significantly to the avalanche multiplication process. By integrating photon-trapping nanostructures, we facilitate deeper penetration of photons into the devices, enhancing light absorption to generate more carriers that can trigger the avalanche process. This improves the gain-bandwidth of silicon APDs and SPADs significantly. Photon-trapping nanoholes can reduce the thickness of silicon without compromising its quantum efficiency, while a perforated surface reduces the device capacitance improving the bandwidth. Therefore, the manipulation of light penetration depth using photon-trapping nanoholes leads to ultrafast high-gain photodetectors capable of detecting faint light signals particularly useful for low light applications such as fluorescent lifetime imaging microscopy and time-of-flight positron emission tomography.
Current deepfake production methods use auto-encoders augmented by a generative adversarial network (GAN) to create fraudulent but convincing video footage. Developing neural networks to counteract these deepfakes is a highly active area of research—but software-based methods can be immediately used to benchmark even better deepfakes. Thus, there is a need for hardware based solutions to complement existing deepfake detection methods. Here, we present on-chip silicon spectrometer arrays to enhance the number of color channels detected in the imaging system by a factor of 100. These arrays are made up of unique photodiodes engineered to have distinctive spectral responsivities that arise from their photon-trapping, surface based, nanostructures. Videos recorded with this hyperspectral imaging device could complicate the training process for deepfake producers because it collects information that a standard camera cannot. It could also assist novel authentication methods, such as heartbeat monitoring, camera fingerprinting techniques, etc. These spectrometer arrays show a promising direction for continued research in deepfake detection.
Improving the time resolution and sensitivity of Silicon-based Single Photon Avalanche Photodetectors (Si-SPAD) across the entire visible spectrum is critical to improve image quality in biomedical imaging applications such as positron emission tomography or fluorescence lifetime imaging. This work reports on the feasibility of manipulating the penetration depth of photons with 450 nm wavelengths to enhance absorption in Si-SPAD by means of photon trapping structures. Optical-electrical simulations suggest light can be directed towards critical regions of the semiconductor increasing the absorption from 54 to 90% with only 1.2μm of silicon and enhancing the probability of avalanche by electrons that leads to higher multiplication gain and speed of operation.
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