In this paper, the processes accompanying multitrack and multilayer selective laser melting of metal powder are studied by methods of multiscale numerical simulation. The model includes the coupled macro-scale balance equations of energy and momentum, describing heat transfer, fluid flow and phase transformations, while modeling the structure of the deposited layer by the discrete elements method. The features of the processes of heat transfer and the formation of the melt pool are studied, the surface profile and the relative density (porosity) of the synthesized sample of stainless steel 304 are determined. The calculated values of the final porosity coincide with the experimental data. On the micro-scale, a phase field method characterized by a self-consistent thermodynamic approach and universality is used to describe phase transitions and structure formation dynamics. The numerical implementation of the microstructure evolution micromodel is carried out, the dynamics of morphology and growth of columnar dendritic microstructures in the process of selective laser melting is analyzed. The influence of the governing parameters of the model and the process on the formation of stress fields in dendritic crystal structures is studied.
Experimental results of on-line monitoring of temperature on the surface of a melt of stainless steel 304 in laser metal deposition technology with an inclined position of the sensor relative to the laser beam are presented. The additive synthesis setup uses the heating of a coaxial flow of a gas-powder mixture in the field of focused laser radiation from a fiber-optic ytterbium laser with a continuous power up to 400 W. To control the temperature on the surface of the melt, a multichannel pyrometer in the SWIR brightness pyrometer mode was used. The spatial resolution of the optical system was approximately 100 μm, and the speed of the sensors was at least 5 kHz. A multi-wave optical diagnostics method is proposed, including monitoring of laser radiation reflected from the melt surface. The features of optical diagnostics of the surface of the melt in the technology of laser metal deposition are given. The results of measuring the temporal temperature behavior as a function of the scanning speed and the distance from the substrate to the laser focus are presented. The spectrum of temperature pulsations T* during the formation of the track is calculated. It is shown that as the scanning speed increases, the pulsation spectrum of T* shifts toward higher frequencies in proportion to the speed. It is also shown that the temperature T* and the mass productivity of track formation increase with a change in the distance from the substrate to the laser focus from 10 to 11 mm, and also with an increase in the powder mass flow rate from 8.4 g/min to 15.6 g/min
The results of optical diagnostics of physical processes occurring on the surface of Nickel alloy powder melt in selective laser melting (SLM) technology are presented. The independent registration of the dynamics of the brightness temperature and the fraction of the laser radiation reflected from the surface of the melt was carried out. The dependences of the surface temperature of the melt averaged over the time of observation on the specific volumetric heat input were obtained for the two values of the width of the generated paths. A multiwave method of optical diagnostics is proposed, including monitoring of laser radiation reflected from the melt surface. It is shown that amplitude pulsations of the reflected radiation induced by fluctuations of the relief of the melt surface associated with dynamics of the surface temperature of the melt: the number of ripples on the waveform of the reflected radiation increases at the stages of decline of the brightness temperature. This observed phenomenon shows the relationship between changes in surface topography and convective processes in the melt during laser heating. Analysis of the signals determined by the reflection of laser radiation from the melt surface allows to determine the moments of change in the intensity of heat and mass transfer in a shorter time than when controlling the melt temperature. The results of the study can be used in the development of methods and tools for monitoring and operational control of the SLM process.
Optical diagnostic methods were used to study the physical processes occurring on the surface of the melt in the technology of selective laser melting (SLM) of metallic powders. Independent registration of the fraction of reflected laser radiation and thermal radiation from several points of the surface of the melt were carried out simultaneously. This made it possible to distinguish changes in the surface relief and subsurface processes of heat and mass transfer during laser heating. It is shown that the frequency and amplitude characteristics of signals obtained by optical diagnostics make it possible to identify the moments of intensification of convective heat and mass transfer. The results of the research can be used to develop methods and tools for on-line monitoring and control of the SLM process.
Results of the experimental study of the effect of the laser radiation on the jet of a gas-powder mixture are presented. The flow of the gas-powder mixture (GPM) was formed by the cone-slit nozzle of the set-up of laser metal deposition (LMD). Spatial-temporal distributions of the temperature of the powder phase of the GPM are obtained. Three granulometric compositions of stainless-steel powder Ch18N9 (PR-X18H9) was used apart in the experiment. The weight-average diameters d50 of powder particles of their compositions were 114, 63 and 36 μm, respectively. The characteristic distance of the temperature rise of particles in the gas-powder jet and the maximum temperature of particles are obtained experimentally and amount, respectively: 9.4 mm and 2200 K for the coarse powder; 6.3 mm and 2250 K for the medium-sized powder; 4.6 mm and 2700 K for the fine powder. The heating rate increased from 0.4*10^6 K/s for the coarse powder to 0.68*10^6 K/s for fine powder. The results of the study can be used to develop methods and tools for monitoring and control the LMD process. The revealed features of the dynamics of the temperature of the powder phase in the LMD process must be taken into account in modeling the processes of the effect of laser radiation on a gas-powder medium.
A numerical study of the influence of macroscopic processes of heat and mass transfer on the dendrites formation during laser metal deposition is carried out in the paper. The algorithm used to calculate the processes realizes the concept of multiscale modeling of crystallization and provides the interaction of models of different structural levels. Simulation of macro-level processes is carried out on the basis of 3D self-consistent equations for the dynamics of the free surface, temperature, and melt flow velocities. The microlevel problems are related to the modeling of the formation of dendrites during the crystallization of the melt and are solved using the phase field equation conjugate with the of heat conduction equation. The profiles of the phase field and the temperature gradient in different spatial regions of the object being formed are calculated. The orientation of the dendritic structures strongly depends on the thermal prehistory and the shape of the melt pool and varies in different areas. In the near-surface layers, the dendrites have a pronounced orientation along the plane of the part. In the process of depositing the material over the previously treated areas, the microstructural properties of the crystallized material change partially. After solidification in areas that have undergone repeated remelting, dendrites oriented vertically appear. With the growth of the temperature gradient, the morphology of the dendrites transforms with the formation of columnar structures.
For a full-fledged application laser additive manufacturing technologies of parts from metal powder and for maximum disclosure of their potential, it is necessary to provide automated construction of an optimal synthesis strategy with determination of the process parameters to ensure the specified properties and geometry of the product. In this paper, in the framework of the thermo-hydrodynamic model, the influence of the geometric boundaries of the workpiece on the processes accompanying laser metal deposition is numerically investigated. The geometric characteristics of the melt pool and the forming bead are investigated: length, width, height and dilution, as well as features of the formation of the vortex structure of the flows in the molten pool caused by thermocapillary forces and injection of powder. Modeling of the process of formation of two adjacent tracks in the technology of selective laser melting is carried out. It is shown that in the case of scanning two adjacent tracks with alternating directions, the volume of the melt region increases. To maintain the parameters in the required range, a variation in the laser radiation power or the scanning speed can be used.
Selective laser melting (SLM) of the powder bed is one of the promising techniques for additive manufacturing of metals. Laser powder bed fusion is an inherently multiscale process and calls for an approach using multiple coupled models. In this work we developed the macroscopic thermodynamic model of SLM involving sequential deposition of powder layers on the plate followed by their melting. The accompanying processes of heat transfer, Marangoni convection and evolution of the melt free surface are included in the model. This model gives self-consistent consideration to the distributions of temperature and melt velocities during SLM. Modeling of the free surface evolution is performed by the VOF method. For numerical calculations the program software has been developed and tested. Its realization involved the C++ class library of numerical modeling OpenFOAM 2.4. Thermal flows, melt velocities and resulting profiles of sintered layers depending on the SLM parameters (beam power, scanning speed, powder layer) have been obtained. The calculated distributions demonstrate the development of widespread defects in SLM, e.g. residual porosity inside the solidified metal in the form of gas bubbles, incomplete penetration and bonding of the substrate metal and the particles. The results show that capillary effects play an important role in the liquid phase dynamics and, correspondingly, in the formation of final profile and structure of the deposed layer. The macro-level data (heat removal rate, cooling rate) can be used as the input parameters in boundary condition formulation for solving the microstructure evolution and the residual stress formation problems during SLM.
3D mathematical model of non-stationary processes of heat and mass transfer was developed for additive manufacturing
of materials by direct laser metal deposition. The model takes into account self-consistent dynamics of free surface,
temperature fields, and melt flow speeds. Evolution of free surface is modelled using combined Volume of Fluid and
Level-Set method. Article presents experimental results of the measurement of temperature distribution in the area of
bead formation by direct laser metal deposition, using multi-channel pyrometer, that is based on two-color sensors line.
A comparison of experimental data with the results of numerical modeling was carried out. Features of thermal dynamics
on the surface of melt pool have been detected, which were caused by thermo-capillary convection.
The estimation of temperature variations in five regions of layer track is fulfilled in two different cases of layer track
formation: laser aided metal powder deposition and selective laser melting with a pre-deposited layer of metal powder.
The peculiarities of the multichannel pyrometer have been described, and the advantages of the application of spectralratio
pyrometer in diagnostics in the additive laser technologies have been demonstrated. A set of measurements of the
temperature distribution in the region of exposure to laser radiation during a bead formation in technology of laser aided
metal powder deposition with powder injection has been performed at the specific energy input of J=90 MJ/kg. The
dependences of the temperature on scanning velocity, laser power and powder thickness have been derived in the
technology of selective laser melting. It has been shown that the maximum temperature of the track surface is little
changed in the wide range of variation of the calculated parameter of specific energy input J=4…20 MJ/kg, the bead
width is here increased as J grows. The increase of J above a certain value J0 leads to a rise in the temperature at the bead
axis. For the experimental conditions with the track width around 1 mm, the character value is estimated as J0 =
24 MJ/kg. It has been shown that J0 depends inversely on the track width.
Measurements of the temperature behavior in the zone of action of the laser-radiation on the molten metal have been performed using multichannel pyrometer. Measurements were carried out for test cutting of a 3-mm mild-steel plate with several values of cutting speed and pressure of assist gas (oxygen), using an 1800-watt Ytterbium fiber laser. It is shown that fluctuations of temperature are related to local melt's surface deformations due to unequal radiation absorption; thus the noise spectrum of temperature fluctuations reflects turbulent surface deformation caused by gas jet and capillary waves. The maximum density of turbulent energy dissipation ε depends on cutting conditions: its value rises with increasing cutting velocity and oxygen pressure in a described range of parameters. The maximum of ε is localized near depth of (1.2...1.5) mm along the cutting front. We can distinguish the specific radiation pulsation spectrum of laser cutting from other processes of radiation affection to the sample, including unwanted degrading of the quality of technological operations. The spectrum of capillary waves on the melt's surface is formed under the effect of assisted gas jet and has a function of ω −3 , ω is cycle frequency. The results of this investigation can be useful for the development of monitoring and quality-control systems for the laser-cutting process.
The measurement data of temporal temperature fluctuation on the cut front while laser cutting of sheet metal (3 mm, 6
mm and 10 mm thickness) are obtained using two-color multi-channel pyrometer. Measurements were carried out for
several values of cutting speed and pressure of assisted gas (oxygen), using a 1500W CO2 laser radiation and 1800W
Ytterbium fiber laser. The relationship between the temperature fluctuations and the deformation of the melt flow surface
on the cutting front in the frequency range above 3 kHz was proven. It is shown that in the case of CO2 laser cutting the
temperature fluctuations RMS is greater than 10 K in the range of sub-millimeter capillary waves, but in the case of
Fiber Laser cutting the temperature fluctuations RMS is less than 3 K. The spectrum of capillary waves in case of Fiber-
Laser cutting is formed under the effect of forced surface deformation at lower frequencies, in particular related to the
assisted gas jet. It is shown, that thermo-capillary effect with capillary-wave turbulence generation can be observed in
the locations, where exposition intensity of melt surface to CO2 laser radiation exceeds 1 MW/cm2. Thus, an additional
mechanism of the anomalous absorption on the front of cutting can compensate the low absorption of the metal in case of
10.6 ìm laser in comparison with the absorption of the metal in the near infrared range.
Access to the requested content is limited to institutions that have purchased or subscribe to SPIE eBooks.
You are receiving this notice because your organization may not have SPIE eBooks access.*
*Shibboleth/Open Athens users─please
sign in
to access your institution's subscriptions.
To obtain this item, you may purchase the complete book in print or electronic format on
SPIE.org.
INSTITUTIONAL Select your institution to access the SPIE Digital Library.
PERSONAL Sign in with your SPIE account to access your personal subscriptions or to use specific features such as save to my library, sign up for alerts, save searches, etc.