In many aerial and close-range photogrammetry applications, the near infrared (NIR) spectral range is required in
addition to the visible (VIS) spectral range. Currently, many especially aerial photogrammetric systems use particularly
optimized camera systems for each spectral band. Using separate cameras or lenses can introduce parallaxes and timedelays
between the acquired images, and thus complicate the data fusion process. Furthermore, it adds additional weight
to the entire system. With an image acquisition through a single objective, the complexity of the data fusion and the
weight can be significantly reduced. However, to be able to only use one objective for different spectral bands, the
optical system has to be free of chromatic aberrations. For photogrammetric applications, a wide field-of-view and a high
resolution are frequent additional requirements.
Therefore, we will present a design and an adapted photogrammetric calibration method of an all-reflective unobscured
optical system optimized for full-frame imaging sensors. All-reflective unobscured optical systems may also be a very
efficient imaging tool in combination with unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs). Due to the limited payload capacity, many
currently available UAVs can only be used with one spectrally limited camera system at the same time. With
miniaturized all-reflective camera systems, the image data could be acquired in the visible and e.g. the NIR spectral
range simultaneously.
This paper focuses on space- and time-resolved crack detection in concrete structures by combining photogrammetric
techniques with acoustic emission analysis. For the photogrammetric measurements, the surface of reinforced concrete
members is textured with a random pattern. A consumer-grade digital camera is used to observe the region of interest
during the loading tests. In a sequence of images, cracks are visualized by detecting discrepancies in local displacement
vector fields, which are obtained from matching algorithms applied to consecutive images. Critical areas of concrete
samples are additionally equipped with several acoustic emission sensors to monitor the crack formation and propagation
by acoustic emission analysis. The parameter-based method is used to record specific parameters in real time and enables
the distinction between bending or shear cracks depending on the signal energy and duration. During the loading tests,
information about the crack prolongation is used to derive the time of transition from stable to unstable phase. The
acoustically detected shear cracks are monitored in the images to track growth and to stop the experiment before a
critical bearing status is reached. Thus, shear cracks can be localized temporally and locally on the surface and inside the
structure.
In a next step, the detected cracks have to be checked for certain properties providing information about the condition of
the structure. Indicators with high level significance referring to structures with no or low advance notice of failure
constitute a focal point of further research.
Highspeed cameras form a central component of photogrammetric 3D measurement systems in applications requiring a
high temporal resolution in fields such as fast object tracking or high frequency deformation measurement. Current highspeed
cameras offer data rates in the order of 1 Gigabyte per second or beyond, delivering for instance 1000 frames per
second at 1000×1000 pixels. Most applications using highspeed cameras for visualization or measurement purposes are
still 2D. Highspeed camera stereo systems are rare because of the costs of cameras and the lack of synchronizibility of
some camera types.
The paper gives a short overview on single camera 3D measurement system concepts. It presents two concepts of setting
up photogrammetric 3D measurement systems based on a single highspeed camera in detail, one based on a single camera
with a stereo mirror system and one on based on a camera-projector combination:
A stereo mirror system in front of a camera generates multiple views on one sensor. These views can be considered
virtual cameras of a multi-camera photogrammetric measurement system. The paper presents a flexible quadruple-mirror
system to be used in 3D motion analysis applications and discusses geometric modeling and system calibration.
Photogrammetric surface measurement systems can be configured by a camera and a projector device projecting
strip or dot patterns onto a surface. Using the projector as an active element in the system design, dense and accurate
3D surface representations may be generated using coded light approach or phase shift techniques. In the geometric
modeling and calibration, the projector can be considered an inverse camera with infinite frame rate. The paper presents
results of an accuracy test obtaining a precision potential in the order of 1/50 pixel from a standard consumergrade
beamer.
Besides the system design and the geometric modeling of the two concepts, the paper shows results from pilot studies
and practical applications.
The use of multi camera systems to determine 3D object coordinates is a common approach in close
range photogrammetry. The paper discusses system configurations based on a single camera and
mirror systems to generate a virtual multi camera system. The two main advantages of mirror-based
multiple-view vision systems can be seen in the lack of synchronisation requirements and the costs
of only one camera. The latter applies especially if high speed cameras are required to capture the
dynamics of an application. These advantages have to be weighted against the disadvantages of a
reduced active image format per view and the restrictions to the imaging geometry.
In the paper we present two different systems used for motion analysis applications: A fixed two
mirror system is used to analyse pedestrian protection testing in the context of vehicle safety
development, and a flexible four mirror system is used to capture 3D velocity fields of particles
visualising gas flows in a wind tunnel. A geometric model for multi-mirror stereoscopic systems has
been developed, representing the mirror system by multiple virtual cameras in order to warrant
compatibility with existing photogrammetric stereo data processing software solutions. The
accuracies achieved in practical tests are almost comparable to those obtained with multi camera
systems.
Optical triangulation methods based on a laser light sheet and a camera are frequently used as a surface measurement technique in a wide range of applications. They allow for the fast accurate determination of height profiles, based on relatively simple hardware and software configurations. Moreover, they can be implemented very efficiently and are especially suited for measurements on moving objects such as products on an assembly line.
The study presented in the paper describes the adaptation of laser light sheet optical triangulation techniques to the task of water level profile measurements in hydromechanics experimental facilities. The properties of water surfaces necessitate several modifications of optical triangulation techniques to make them applicable: The mirror-like reflection properties of water surfaces form a contradiction to the assumption of diffuse reflection, on which standard light sheet triangulation techniques are based; this problem can be circumvented by using a diffuse reflecting projection plane to capture the mirror-like reflection of the laser line from the water surface. Due to the angle of incidence law, however, water surface tilts caused by waves will usually cause a strong degradation of the quality of the results when using reflected light; this effect can largely be compensated by processing max-store images derived from short image sequences rather than single images.
These extensions of optical triangulation turned out to be crucial for the applicability of the method on water surfaces. Besides the theoretical concept and a sensitivity analysis of the method, a system configuration is outlined, and the results of a number of practical experiments are shown and discussed.
Today's consumer market digital camcorders offer features which make them appear quite interesting devices for virtual reality data capture. The paper compares a digital camcorder with an analogue camcorder and a machine vision type CCD camera and discusses the suitability of these three cameras for virtual reality applications. Besides the discussion of technical features of the cameras, this includes a detailed accuracy test in order to define the range of applications. In combination with the cameras, three different framegrabbers are tested. The geometric accuracy potential of all three cameras turned out to be surprisingly large, and no problems were noticed in the radiometric performance. On the other hand, some disadvantages have to be reported: from the photogrammetrists point of view, the major disadvantage of most camcorders is the missing possibility to synchronize multiple devices, limiting the suitability for 3-D motion data capture. Moreover, the standard video format contains interlacing, which is also undesirable for all applications dealing with moving objects or moving cameras. Further disadvantages are computer interfaces with functionality, which is still suboptimal. While custom-made solutions to these problems are probably rather expensive (and will make potential users turn back to machine vision like equipment), this functionality could probably be included by the manufacturers at almost zero cost.
The evaluation of the suitability of image compression techniques to 3D PTV images is motivated by a conflict between the bandwidth of data transfer and storage systems and the requirements concerning spatial and temporal resolution of 3D PTV data. In this paper the possibilities of lossless compression are outlined and the influence of lossy JPEG and Wavelet algorithm to PTV particle images is displayed. It is shown that JPEG and Wavelet compression technique have almost the same impact to particle images; both techniques can be used up to a compression ratio of 10 in special cases up to 20. For the lossless case a compression ratio of 5 can be reached with image preprocessing.
Today's developments in industrial robots focus on aims like gain of flexibility, improvement of the interaction between robots and reduction of down-times. A very important method to achieve these goals are off-line programming techniques. In contrast to conventional teach-in-robot programming techniques, where sequences of actions are defined step-by- step via remote control on the real object, off-line programming techniques design complete robot (inter-)action programs in a CAD/CAM environment. This poses high requirements to the geometric accuracy of a robot. While the repeatability of robot poses in the teach-in mode is often better than 0.1 mm, the absolute pose accuracy potential of industrial robots is usually much worse due to tolerances, eccentricities, elasticities, play, wear-out, load, temperature and insufficient knowledge of model parameters for the transformation from poses into robot axis angles. This fact necessitates robot calibration techniques, including the formulation of a robot model describing kinematics and dynamics of the robot, and a measurement technique to provide reference data. Digital photogrammetry as an accurate, economic technique with realtime potential offers itself for this purpose. The paper analyzes the requirements posed to a measurement technique by industrial robot calibration tasks. After an overview on measurement techniques used for robot calibration purposes in the past, a photogrammetric robot calibration system based on off-the- shelf lowcost hardware components will be shown and results of pilot studies will be discussed. Besides aspects of accuracy, reliability and self-calibration in a fully automatic dynamic photogrammetric system, realtime capabilities are discussed. In the pilot studies, standard deviations of 0.05 - 0.25 mm in the three coordinate directions could be achieved over a robot work range of 1.7 X 1.5 X 1.0 m3. The realtime capabilities of the technique allow to go beyond kinematic robot calibration and perform dynamic robot calibration as well as photogrammetric on-line control of a robot in action.
KEYWORDS: Cameras, CCD image sensors, Digital photography, Photogrammetry, Digital imaging, Imaging systems, Computing systems, Power supplies, Control systems, Data storage
High resolution digital stillvideo cameras have found wide interest in digital close range photogrammetry in the last five years. They can be considered fully autonomous digital image acquisition systems without the requirement of permanent connection to an external power supply and a host computer for camera control and data storage, thus allowing for convenient data acquisition in many applications of digital photogrammetry. The accuracy potential of stillvideo cameras has been extensively discussed. While large format CCD sensors themselves can be considered very accurate measurement devices, lenses, camera bodies and sensor mounts of stillvideo cameras are not compression techniques in image storage, which may also affect the accuracy potential. This presentation shows recent experiences from accuracy tests with a number of large format stillvideo cameras, including a modified Kodak DCS200, a Kodak DCS460, a Nikon E2 and a Polaroid PDC-2000. The tests of the cameras include absolute and relative measurements and were performed using strong photogrammetric networks and good external reference. The results of the tests indicate that very high accuracies can be achieved with large blocks of stillvideo imagery especially in deformation measurements. In absolute measurements, however, the accuracy potential of the large format CCD sensors is partly ruined by a lack of stability of the cameras.
The digital high-resolution stillvideo camera Kodak DCS200 has reached a high degree of popularity among photogrammetrists within a very short time. Consisting of a mirror reflex camera, a high resolution CCD sensor, A/D conversion, power supply, and data storage capacity for 50 images, it can basically be considered a comfortable, autonomous device for digital image data acquisition, especially for industrial applications and for architectural photogrammetry. First tests of the camera showed a high precision potential: 1/20-1/30 pixel in image space could be achieved in several applications, and with large self-calibrating networks relative precisions of 1:100,000 and better have been reported. To be able to make more detailed statements on the accuracy potential of the camera, a thorough accuracy test was performed at ETH Zurich by taking 150 images of a 186 target 3D testfield. Although the precision estimates of this large block were exceptionally good, strong systematic object deformations were found in comparison with theodolite-measured reference coordinates of the testfield points. The reasons for these deformations are most probably temporal instabilities of some camera parameters, which could make the use of this camera very problematic for high accuracy applications. It is argued that these instabilities are caused by the weak fixture of the CCD-chip to the camera body. In this context it is often overlooked that this camera was not developed for precise measurement applications but rather for professional photographers.
KEYWORDS: Particles, 3D image processing, 3D acquisition, Visualization, Velocity measurements, Data acquisition, CCD cameras, Image processing, 3D metrology, Cameras
Two different photogrammetric techniques for the determination of high-resolved simultaneous 3-D velocity fields in flows are outlined and compared: a technique based on the discrete visualization of a flow with tracer particles and recording of image sequences by multiple CCD cameras, and a technique based on scanning an observation volume of a flow marked with dye by a laser Iightsheet and tracking of flow patterns by 3-D least-squares matching in sequences of voxel datasets. The article shows the principles of both methods, hardware configurations for data acquisition, application fields, and results achieved.
KEYWORDS: Tomography, 3D acquisition, Seaborgium, Imaging systems, Data acquisition, Cameras, Solid state cameras, Visualization, High speed cameras, Laser induced fluorescence
For the examination of mixing processes in turbulent flows a system based on a high-speed solid state camera has been implemented, which allows for the quasi-simultaneous acquisition of sequences of flow tomography voxel data. In these data, velocity fields are determined by 3D least squares matching. The first part of the paper will show a hardware configuration based on a highspeed solid state camera with a maximum frame rate of 500 images per second and a scanning laser lightsheet, which allows for the acquisition of flow tomography data sequences with a typical size of 256 X 256 X 50 voxels per volume dataset at a rate of 10 datasets per second. The quality of the data and some special problems of the highspeed camera will be discussed. In the second part of the paper the 3D implementation of least squares matching with a 12-parameter 3D affine transformation between voxel-patches of consecutive datasets will be described. In order to strengthen the matching in regions with insufficient local contrast the algorithm is combined with several geometric and radiometric constraints.
KEYWORDS: Cameras, Digital photography, Photogrammetry, Data acquisition, Imaging systems, Data processing, Digital imaging, Image processing, Target detection, Calibration
Automatic or semi-automatic systems for digital close-range photogrammetry are a very efficient and accurate tool for a large number of measuring tasks in industrial production processes. This presentation shows experiences and results of some pilot studies on the applicability of digital photogrammetric techniques in production and quality control conducted on a north-american shipyard. The main task was the dimensional check of sections of a ship's hull manufactured and equipped in a hall and to be fitted into it's location in the complete hull under construction in order to avoid expensive refitting work during the final assembly of the hull. An off-the-shelf high-resolution stillvideo camera Kodak DCS200 was found to be very useful for data acquisition; it proved to be an autonomous, flexible digital image acquisition system with a high accuracy potential. The items to be measured were discrete points targeted with retroreflective markers. Due to the relatively small number of targets to be measured and the high complexity of the scenes semi-automatic data processing was chosen. The results of the study were quite satisfactory: it could be shown that a system largely based on standardized hardware components is well suited for the tasks, and a relative accuracy of up to 1:75,000, which can be considered a good value under factory floor conditions, could be achieved.
KEYWORDS: 3D image processing, Chemical elements, Image processing, Tomography, Solid state cameras, Visualization, Seaborgium, Photogrammetry, Image analysis, Imaging systems
We present an image analysis technique for examining the fine scale (Kolmogorov scale) variations of the mixing process in a turbulent flow. The objective is to trace the interaction of two flows by identifying their motions in a sequence of 3-D images obtained with a system based on a high-speed solid state camera. After briefly describing the imaging process and the particularities related to the capture of quasi-continuous 3-D image sequences, we focus on theoretical and implementational issues associated with feature tracking in 3-D image sequences. We present the extension of least squares matching from pixels, associated with 2- D images, to voxels, associated with 3-D images. The use of additional constraints of radiometric and/or geometric nature strengthens the matching solution. In addition, the large amount of data associated with 3-D image sequences in general, and the high and multidirectional velocities involved in this application in particular, make the division of an efficient matching strategy quite important.
For the examination of mixing processes in turbulent flows a system based on a high-speed solid state camera has been implemented, which allows for the quasi-simultaneous acquisition of sequences of tomography data in flows. In these data, velocity fields are being determined by 3D least squares matching. The paper shows the hardware configuration for the flow tomography data sequence acquisition and the algorithm for 3D least squares matching with additional constraints for tracking in tomography voxel data.
Particle tracking velocimetry (PTV) is a well-known technique for the determination of velocity vectors in an observation volume. Here we present a fully automatic and efficient PTV method, which is based on the photogrammetric determination of particle coordinates in space. By this method we are able to determine about 100 vectors with satisfactory accuracy in an observation volume with a frequency of 25 time frames per second.
Structured light is a flexible method which is often used for the measurement of surfaces without natural texture. A basic difficulty herein is the solution of the correspondence problem, which often leads to ambiguities due to high spatial frequencies of the projected patterns or discontinuities in the object. The method presented here is based on the projection of a very dense dot pattern and three or more images of the object rather than a stereo pair, and it offers a reliable establishment of correspondences without requiring any approximate values or an initial match established by a human operator like some other systems do. This paper gives an overview of the hardware setup and the chain of processing; results are shown from deformation measurements of a carbon wing panel under load and from the determination of the surface of a model car.
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