The smaller the diameter of an endoscope, the greater its potential for minimally invasive surgical treatments. In conventional, flexible (fiber-based) endoscopes with small diameters (<200 µm), imaging is severely limited by the number of fiber cores. Due to this limitation, the image is pixelated. In this work, an engineering approach is used to increase the number of pixels by spectral multiplexing. However, this requires very small color-splitting optical systems at the distal end of the endoscope, i.e., at the body-facing end of the fiber. Such small dispersive optical systems are practically impossible to produce directly on the fiber using conventional techniques. Therefore, the idea is implemented using 3D-printed micro-optics. Preliminary work has shown that multiphoton lithography (fs DLW) is capable of producing imaging and color splitting systems on this size scale.
We present the optical design, fabrication and test of a fiber core multiplexing endoscope with a diameter of only 160 µm. Single-shot resolution enhancement is demonstrated by imaging of a USAF test chart and biological samples.
Additive manufacturing of microoptics using two-photon-lithography has been a rapidly advancing field of technology. Striving for ever more sophisticated optical systems prerequisites the access to appropriately fast and accurate wave-optical simulation methods to predict their optical performance. A simulation routine, which has been proven well suited for simulation of a vast range of 3D-printed microoptical systems, is the wave propagation method (WPM). Nevertheless, limitations in applicability remain due to the restriction on scalar electromagnetic fields, which prohibits consideration of polarization and thereby also the calculation of backward reflection at optical interfaces. Capabilities for design and analyses are, therefore, impaired for 3D-printed optical systems using those properties as key features in their design. As a first step to overcome those limitations, we presented new simulation methods based on the WPM in previous publications, extending its applicability toward simulation of vector electric fields, while maintaining short-simulation runtime. We focus on elaborating the practical application and integration of previously presented simulation methods in the design of complex 3D-printed optical systems. With it, we demonstrate the consideration of polarization and backward reflections in simulations far beyond paraxial and thin element approximations.
Additive manufacturing of micro-optics using Two-Photon-Lithography (2PL) has been a rapidly advancing field of technology. Striving for ever more sophisticated optical systems prerequisites the access to appropriately fast and accurate wave-optical simulation methods to predict their optical performance. A simulation routine, which has been proven well suited for simulation of a vast range of 3D-printed micro-optical systems, is the Wave Propagation Method (WPM). Nevertheless, limitations in applicability remain due to the restriction on scalar electromagnetic fields, which prohibits e.g. consideration of polarization and thereby also the calculation of backwards reflection at optical interfaces. Capabilities for design and analyses are therefore impaired for 3D-printed optical systems using those properties as key features in their design. As a first step to overcome those limitations, we presented new simulation methods based on the WPM in previous publications, extending its applicability towards simulation of vector electric fields, while maintaining short simulation runtime. In the present manuscript, we focus on elaborating the practical application and integration of the previously presented simulation methods in the design of complex 3D-printed optical systems. With it, we demonstrate the consideration of polarization and backward reflections in simulations far beyond paraxial and thin element approximations.
Aperiodic volume optics have been shown to be multiplexed optical devices that can produce different targeted output distributions from the same volume, only depending on the incoming illumination condition. These structures however have so far been produced inside of rigid glass substrates by introducing targeted microfractures through a focused laser. This makes following preparation steps necessary for any real-world applications, before even considering the illumination setup. We present a step towards the direct, additive manufacturing of multiplexed volume scattering devices by the creation of 3-dimensional structures using two-photon-polymerization, which is capable of creating complex optical microsystems, and their wave-optical simulation.
Femtosecond direct laser writing is a key enabling technology for complex microoptics. Imaging and illumination applications have impressively been demonstrated in the past. Here, we take 3D-printed microoptics one step further and assess the feasibility of complex microoptical systems: From a pinhole camera to a spectrometer.
The first step in successful realization of complex microoptical systems are specialized measurement techniques that match both fabrication and simulation methods. Different setups are presented to reach stray light control, isolate topographic effects, and measure the efficiency of diffractive structures with small lateral extensions. All methods are easy to implement and can be key to targeted optimization of complex systems.
In a second step, the spectrum of corresponding fabrication methods to fsDLW is extended by the microfluidic addition of a functional substance. We show that the incorporation of microfluidic channels into the 3D-printed mounting structures can be used to absorb a non-transparent fluid to create aperutres. Thus, a 3D-printed micro-pinhole camera can be demonstrated.
Finally, all learnings and methods from these studies are combined to create complex microoptical systems. Multiple concepts of ultra-compact 3D-printed wide-angle cameras are examined. A special focus is laid on optical and mechanical design, measurement and optimization of highly tilted refractive and catadioptric freeform surfaces. An iterative correction mechanism is developed to improve shape fidelity to realize first implementations of 180°×360° field of view multi-aperture imaging.
The highest complexity of a 3D-printed microoptical system is finally reached by the realization of an entire measurement system. The feasibility of a monolithic spectrometer in a volume of only 100 × 100 × 300 μm³ is theoretically and experimentally demonstrated. The results represent the first direct spectrometer in this miniature size range and unclose a new era of complex 3D-printed microoptical (measurement) systems, enabled by novel methods for charactarization, optimization and aperture fabrication.
Modern two-photon-polymerization 3D printing technology allows for the creation of almost arbitrary threedimensional structures for the production of complex freeform optical surfaces. While being highly controllable and accurate to below 100 nm some systematic deviation by volumetric changes during the polymerization and development process remains. This can however be corrected for when the surface deviation is known. We present a method to include repeatable measurements and the consequent shape correction during the production process of monolithically created complex freeform lens systems. Measurement concepts as well as consequences to shape improvements are shown. An example for the application of such corrections for the creation of low profile multi-aperture large field of view objectives is presented.
Optical trapping is the science of holding and immobilizing particles and cells, for further manipulation and spectroscopic studies. Enhancing the application of optical trapping is limited by size and flexibility of this tool, mostly limited to high numerical aperture objectives. In this work, we show the potential of using structured light to further enhance the capabilities of optical fibres as optical tweezers, to be used for applications in which space and throughput are of importance. Using femtosecond two photon direct laser writing, we produce accurately designed micro-optic probes at the tip of optical fibres to enhance the light field for trapping single particles as well as single live cells. Enhanced trapping efficiency, ease of transporting trapped particle, and potential of performing wide spectrum spectroscopy on the trapped entity are the advantages of the present approach.
An original approach of highly efficient fiber-based optical tweezers using 3D printed diffractive optical elements at an optical fiber facets is presented. As an example Fresnel lens structures, with focal lengths in the range of 50 to 200 µm, are fabricated by femtosecond two photo lithography. Compared to conventional fiber tip tweezers based on chemically wet etched fiber tips, significant trapping efficiency enhancement by a factor of up to 50 is observed in both axial and transverse direction. An outlook on further concepts of enhanced optical fiber tweezers based on 3D diffractive structures will complete the presentation.
A new approach of a highly efficient counter propagating optical fiber based tweezers using 3D printed Fresnel lenses at the fiber facets will be presented. In contrast to conventional fiber tip tweezers the emitted beams of the Fresnel lens fibers are converging resulting in a significantly enhanced trapping efficiency in both axial and transverse direction. The used polymer diffractive Fresnel lens structures are fabricated by femtosecond two photo lithography using a commercial system. The measured trapping efficiencies are found to be up to 90 times higher than for similar results using chemically wet-etched fiber tips. A short outlook on further concepts of enhanced optical fiber tweezers based on 3D diffractive structures will also be given.
Modern 3D-printing technologies allow for the production of very small and complex microscale optical systems, which require examination of wave-optical effects within their design process. Common optical design software employs ray-tracing as their basic concept, which is not capable of fully simulating wave-optical effects. Rigorous methods, which solve electromagnetic field equations, are very time consuming and require more proficiency of the users. We present an application of the Wave Propagation Method (WPM), which is able to accurately simulate wave-optical effects in forward direction, while providing a reasonably fast calculation time utilizing both central- and graphics processing units (CPU and GPU) as an easy-to-use plugin for the open-source software ITOM.
Rigorous simulations of three-dimensional structures containing different shapes and materials are often too extensive for being performed with regular hardware. We present an application of the Differential Method which is able to perform rigorous simulation of three dimensional microspheres, which are placed with an air-gap over a structured region. An application of GPU-accelerated calculations as well as changes in the approach to the integration algorithms provide a considerable speedup in calculation time. This enables an investigation of the already shown, but until now not reasonably computable super resolution capababilities of microspheres.
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