The Slicer Combined with an Array of Lenslets for Exoplanet Spectroscopy (SCALES) will be the first facility-class integral field spectrograph (IFS) to operate between 2-5 microns. Expected to see first light at W. M. Keck Observatory in 2025, SCALES will extend the parameter space of directly imaged exoplanets to those that are colder, and thus older. SCALES will perform high-contrast imaging of these objects and other targets including protoplanetary disks, Solar System objects, and supernovae. Interferometric techniques such as non-redundant aperture masking (NRM) have been demonstrated to improve spatial resolution at high contrasts. Aperture masking turns a telescope into an interferometer by blocking the pupil with an opaque mask with some number of circular holes. Here we present the final designs for the non-redundant masks that will be integrated into SCALES. We outline their design, manufacturing, characterization, and integration processes. We also present the injection and recovery of several planet and disk companion models into mock SCALES science frames to assess the performance of the selected designs.
KEYWORDS: Planets, Stars, Point spread functions, Exoplanets, Speckle, Atmospheres, Spectral resolution, Atmospheric modeling, Simulations, Signal to noise ratio
SCALES (Slicer Combined with Array of Lenslets for Exoplanet Spectroscopy) is a high-contrast lenslet-based integral field spectrograph (IFS) designed to characterize exoplanet atmospheres in the 2 - 5 micron wavelength range. The SCALES medium-resolution mode provides the ability to characterize exoplanets at increased spectral resolution via the use of a lenslet subarray with a 0.34 x 0.36 arcsecond field of view and an image slicer. We use the SCALES simulator scalessim to generate high-fidelity mock observations of planets in the mediumresolution mode that include realistic Keck adaptive optics performance, as well as other atmospheric and instrumental noise effects, to simulate planet detections, and then employ angular differential imaging to extract the planet spectra. Analyzing the recovered spectra from these simulations allows us to quantify the effects of systematic noise sources on planet characterization, in particular residual speckle noise following angular differential data processing. We use these simulated recovered spectra to explore SCALES’ ability to constrain molecular abundances and disequilibrium chemistry in giant exoplanet atmospheres.
SCALES (Slicer Combined with Array of Lenslets for Exoplanet Spectroscopy) is the next-generation, diffraction-limited, thermal infrared, fully cryogenic, coronagraphic exoplanet spectrograph and imager for W.M. Keck Observatory. SCALES is fed by the Keck II Adaptive Optics bench. Both modes use common fore-optics to simplify the optical design and have individual detectors, which are JWST flight spares. The imager mode operates from 1 to 5 microns with selectable narrow- and broadband filters over a field of view 12.3 arcseconds on a side, and the integral field spectrograph mode operates from 2 to 5 microns with both low and mid spectral resolutions (R∼ 100 to R∼ 7500) over a field of view 2.15 arcseconds on a side. The diamond-turned aluminum optics, most of which are already delivered, with the rest being fabricated, provide low distortion, low wavefront error, and high throughput for all modes. The slicing unit, located behind the lenslet array, allows SCALES to reach heretofore unheard-of spatially-resolved spectral resolution for exoplanet and disc observations from the ground with a coronagraphic integral field spectrograph. The SCALES consortium includes UC Observatories, CalTech, W.M. Keck Observatory, the Indian Institute of Astrophysics, and the University of Durham, with over 40 science team members. We report on the overall design and project status during its ongoing fabrication phase, which started in early 2023.
We present the preliminary design of GMagAO-X, the first-light high-contrast imager planned for the Giant Magellan Telescope. GMagAO-X will realize the revolutionary increase in spatial resolution and sensitivity provided by the 25 m GMT. It will enable, for the first time, the spectroscopic characterization of nearby potentially habitable terrestrial exoplanets orbiting late-type stars. Additional science cases include: reflected light characterization of mature giant planets; measurement of young extrasolar giant planet variability; characterization of circumstellar disks at unprecedented spatial resolution; characterization of benchmark stellar atmospheres at high spectral resolution; and mapping of resolved objects such as giant stars and asteroids. These, and many more, science cases will be enabled by a 21,000 actuator extreme adaptive optics system, a coronagraphic wavefront control system, and a suite of imagers and spectrographs. We will review the science-driven performance requirements for GMagAO-X, which include achieving a Strehl ratio of 70% at 800 nm on 8th mag and brighter stars, and post-processed characterization at astrophysical flux-ratios of 1e-7 at 4 lambda/D (26 mas at 800 nm) separation. We will provide an overview of the resulting mechanical, optical, and software designs optimized to deliver this performance. We will also discuss the interfaces to the GMT itself, and the concept of operations. We will present an overview of our end-to-end performance modeling and simulations, including the control of segment phasing, as well as an overview of prototype lab demonstrations. Finally, we will review the results of Preliminary Design Review held in February, 2024.
SCALES (Slicer Combined with Array of Lenslets for Exoplanet Spectroscopy) is a 2 micron to 5 micron high-contrast lenslet-based Integral Field Spectrograph (IFS) designed to characterize exoplanets and their atmospheres. The SCALES medium-spectral-resolution mode uses a lenslet subarray with a 0.34 x 0.36 arcsecond field of view which allows for exoplanet characterization at increased spectral resolution. We explore the sensitivity limitations of this mode by simulating planet detections in the presence of realistic noise sources. We use the SCALES simulator scalessim to generate high-fidelity mock observations of planets that include speckle noise from their host stars, as well as other atmospheric and instrumental noise effects. We employ both angular and reference differential imaging as methods of disentangling speckle noise from the injected planet signals. These simulations allow us to assess the feasibility of speckle deconvolution for SCALES medium resolution data, and to test whether one approach outperforms another based on planet angular separations and contrasts.
The Slicer Combined with Array of Lenslets for Exoplanet Spectroscopy (SCALES) is an under-construction thermal infrared high-contrast integral field spectrograph that will be located at the W. M. Keck Observatory. SCALES will detect and characterize planets that are currently inaccessible to detailed study by operating at thermal (2 μm to 5 μm) wavelengths and leveraging integral-field spectroscopy to readily distinguish exoplanet radiation from residual starlight. SCALES’ wavelength coverage and medium-spectral-resolution (R ∼ 4,000) modes will also enable investigations of planet accretion processes. We explore the scientific requirements of additional custom gratings and filters for incorporation into SCALES that will optimally probe tracers of accretion in forming planets. We use ray-traced hydrogen emission line profiles (i.e., Brγ, Brα) and the SCALES end-to-end simulator, scalessim, to generate grids of high-fidelity mock datasets of accreting planetary systems with varying characteristics (e.g., Teff, planet mass, planet radius, mass accretion rate). In this proceeding, we describe potential specialized modes that best differentiate accretion properties and geometries from the simulated observations.
The Slicer Combined with Array of Lenslets for Exoplanet Spectroscopy (SCALES) is a 2 μm to 5 μm, high-contrast Integral Field Spectrograph (IFS) currently being built for Keck Observatory. With both low (R ≲ 250) and medium (R approximately 3500 to 7000) spectral resolution IFS modes, SCALES will detect and characterize significantly colder exoplanets than those accessible with near-infrared (approximately 1 μm to 2 μm) high-contrast spectrographs. This will lead to new progress in exoplanet atmospheric studies, including detailed characterization of benchmark systems that will advance the state of the art of atmospheric modeling. SCALES’ unique modes, while designed specifically for direct exoplanet characterization, will enable a broader range of novel (exo)planetary observations as well as galactic and extragalactic studies. Here we present the science cases that drive the design of SCALES. We describe an end-to-end instrument simulator that we use to track requirements and show simulations of expected science yields for each driving science case. We conclude with a discussion of preparations for early science when the instrument sees first light in approximately 2025.
We present the design of SCALES (Slicer Combined with Array of Lenslets for Exoplanet Spectroscopy) a new 2-5 micron coronagraphic integral field spectrograph under construction for Keck Observatory. SCALES enables low-resolution (R∼50) spectroscopy, as well as medium-resolution (R∼4,000) spectroscopy with the goal of discovering and characterizing cold exoplanets that are brightest in the thermal infrared. Additionally, SCALES has a 12x12” field-of-view imager that will be used for general adaptive optics science at Keck. We present SCALES’s specifications, its science case, its overall design, and simulations of its expected performance. Additionally, we present progress on procuring, fabricating and testing long lead-time components.
The Planetary Systems Imager (PSI) is a second-generation exoplanet detection and characterization instrument concept for the Thirty Meter Telescope (TMT). PSI will enable extreme adaptive optics imaging and spectroscopy from the visible into the infrared. Its high contrast, coupled with TMT’s sensitivity, will access entirely new regions of exoplanet parameter space. Here we describe the driving exoplanet science cases for PSI, including detecting and characterizing rocky planets around nearby M dwarfs, constraining atmospheric and surface compositions and variability, measuring accretion onto protoplanets on Solar System orbital scales, and more. We present the top level instrument requirements for each subsystem, which we derive from these science cases and inform using simulations. We discuss PSI’s expected science outcomes for exoplanet studies, and also highlight examples of its potential for Solar System, galactic, and extragalactic science.
The advantage of having a high-fidelity instrument simulation tool developed in tandem with novel instrumentation is having the ability to investigate, in isolation and in combination, the wide parameter space set by the instrument design. SCALES, the third generation thermal-infrared diffraction limited imager and low/med-resolution integral field spectrograph being designed for Keck, is an instrument unique in design in order to optimize for its driving science case of direct detection and characterization of thermal emission from cold exoplanets. This warranted an end-to-end simulation tool that systematically produces realistic mock data from SCALES to probe the recovery of injected signals under changes in instrument design parameters. In this paper, we quantify optomechanical tolerance and detector electronic requirements set by the fiducial science cases, and test the consequences of update to the design of the instrument on meeting these requirements.
The exoplanet atmosphere characterization goals of future UV/Optical/Infrared flagship space missions will drive challenging design requirements for instrument wavefront controls, spatial and spectral sampling, spectral bandwidth, and detector performance. The new ExoSpec Project links four previously distinct research efforts at Goddard and Ames for enabling and enhancing the characterization of directly-imaged exoplanets. ExoSpec is comprised of three laboratory subsystem demonstrations: high-contrast integral field spectrographs, p-channel CCDs, and parabolic deformable mirrors. A fourth component, exoplanet spectral retrieval, is an iterative data simulation activity driven by the goal of optimizing the system-level instrument design for atmosphere retrieval metrics. The ExoSpec Project's emphasis on system-level spectroscopy performance complements the objectives of other technology demonstrations supported by NASA.
Vortex fiber nulling (VFN) is a method that may enable the detection and characterization of exoplanets at small angular separations (0.5-2 λ/D) with ground- and space-based telescopes. Since the field of view is within the inner working angle of most coronagraphs, nulling accesses non-transiting planets that are otherwise too close to their star for spectral characterization by other means, thereby significantly increasing the number of known exoplanets available for direct spectroscopy in the near-infrared. Furthermore, VFN targets planets on closer-in orbits which tend to have more favorable planet-to-star flux ratios in reflected light. Here, we present the theory and applications of VFN, show that the optical performance is approximately equivalent for a variety of implementations and aperture shapes, and discuss the trade-offs between throughput and engineering requirements using numerical simulations. We compare vector and scalar approaches and, finally, show that beam shaping optics may be used to significantly improve the throughput for planet light. Based on theoretical performance, we estimate the number of known planets and theoretical exoEarths accessible with a VFN instrument linked to a high-resolution spectrograph on the future Thirty Meter Telescope.
The Wide Field Infrared Survey Telescope (WFIRST) Coronagraphic Instrument (CGI) technology demonstration and potential science mission, as well as mission concepts with exoplanet imaging capabilities such as HabEx and LUVOIR, all require the identification of the best targets for exoplanet observations. To date, the focus has been primarily on two classes of targets: those with known exoplanets discovered indirectly that may be observable by these imaging missions, and those targets with no known planets that have high completeness values (probabilities of planet detections) under some assumptions of the instrument performance and the overall population of exoplanets. A third class of target, however, has received much less scrutiny: stars with known exoplanets that could not possibly be directly imaged due to the size of their orbits. These are planets that would be guaranteed to spend all of their time inside the inner working angles or outside the outer working angles of all currently proposed coronagraphs. However, these systems could potentially harbor additional planets, either exterior to or interior to the currently known planets, but not yet detectable by indirect means. Here, we discuss how to identify systems from all three categories that would be good targets for WFIRST and other, future, space-based imagers. We present a method for assessing the utility of these targets based on an exploration of the available dynamical phase space of the systems that would result in long-term stable orbits for both the currently known and the potentially discoverable companions, and show how it augments existing methods for assessing target completeness and utility.
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