We describe the development of a lightweight, high-resolution surveillance camera for deployment on high altitude platform systems. The instrument is designed to operate at an altitude of ∼20 km and has an expected ground resolution of better than 120 mm with an appropriate sensor. While designed specifically for imaging at visible wavelengths, it is shown that the design is capable of diffraction-limited imaging at NIR and SWIR wavelengths up to 2.5 μm. We have combined a range of materials from aluminum and titanium alloys through to carbon fiber-reinforced plastic to produce an instrument with structural components that match the thermal expansion of the optical glasses used. The use of these materials has resulted in an instrument that weighs <2 kg, including a sensor package, and is designed to weigh <3 kg once integrated with an enclosure and actuated gimbal. The successful testing of two prototype systems is described, including several design outcomes from the program intended for implementation in advance of flight trials.
We describe a full field heterodyne interferometry system where the object beam is shifted by a high frequency with respect to the reference beam. The optical path difference between the object and reference beam is encoded in the phase of the envelope of the interference signal which is at the difference frequency. Conventionally, high frequency heterodyne interferometry is restricted to measurement of a single (or a few) point(s) as is the case in displacement measuring interferometers for precision machine tool axis feedback. This is because of the problem of demodulating the signal phase simultaneously for many pixels comprising a full-field image. This problem is overcome here by exploiting the capability of the special pixel structure employed in a Time of Flight (ToF) camera. This structure enables the measurement of the envelope phase of an optical signal at every pixel with respect to an electronic reference at the same frequency. ToF cameras are designed to measure the distance to an object in its field of view by detecting the phase delay, due to time of flight, of reflected light from a modulated source synchronized to the camera. In the described experimental interferometer, a Twyman-Green architecture is used with an acousto-optic modulator to produce interfering beams with a difference frequency of 20MHz. The image detector is a modified ToF camera based on a Texas Instruments OPT8241 sensor. The interferometer directly outputs a wrapped optical phase map with 12-bit resolution (equivalent OPD resolution 0.15 nm) at greater than 50 frames per second with no post-processing. The phase reconstruction is highly insensitive to the reference/object beam intensity ratio or to environmental noise.
The use of autocollimator-based profilometers of the Nanometer Optical measuring Machine (NOM) design has been reported for the evaluation of X-ray optics for some time. We report a related development in the use of a non-contact NOM profilometer for the in situ measurement of base radius of curvature and conic constant for E-ELT primary mirror segments during fabrication. The instrument is unusual in NOM design in that it is deployable onto a CNC polishing machine in an industrial fabrication environment. Whilst the measurement of radius of curvature of spherical surfaces over a single scan has been reported previously, here we report on the use of this instrument to measure optical surfaces with an aspheric departure of 180 micrometers using a grid of multiple scans and bespoke surface fitting software. The repeatability of the measurement has been found to be approximately 1 mm in a measured radius of curvature of approximately 90 m. The absolute accuracy is limited by the accuracy of the calibration of the autocollimator and the in situ calibration of the instrument during operation.
The testing of highly aspheric optics often requires complex test arrangements: these test systems can be multi-element and will have both fabrication and alignment errors present in the test wavefront. It may not be feasible to calibrate such systems with conventional optical shop practice. The use of diffractive imitator optics, with carefully controlled fabrication uncertainties, can be used to characterise these systems. We describe the use of reflective imitator CGH optics as calibration artefacts in the calibration of an optical test system used to test ELT primary mirror segments. The optical test system is designed to have two operational modes: one to measure a spherical reference optic; and one to measure the primary mirror segment. The use of diffractive imitators in this test system is designed to provide traceability between these two operational configurations, to quantify residual alignment aberrations, and to quantify fabrication errors in the test system. We outline the design of the optical test system, the design of three imitator CGH artefacts required to provide traceability between the two optical test modes, and our calibration approach. We demonstrate the calibration performance achieved with this approach. Without the use of these imitator artefacts, the absolute accuracy of the optical test is estimated to be 149 nm RMS wavefront, of which 47 nm RMS is attributed to midspatial wavefront errors and 141 nm RMS is attributed to alignment and prescription errors. The repeatability of this calibration has been established as better than 3 nm wavefront standard deviation, with an absolute accuracy of 19 nm RMS wavefront.
The manufacture of the next generation of large astronomical telescopes, the extremely large telescopes (ELT), requires the rapid manufacture of greater than 500 1.44m hexagonal segments for the primary mirror of each telescope. Both leading projects, the Thirty Meter Telescope (TMT) and the European Extremely Large Telescope (E-ELT), have set highly demanding technical requirements for each fabricated segment. These technical requirements, when combined with the anticipated construction schedule for each telescope, suggest that more than one optical fabricator will be involved in the delivery of the primary mirror segments in order to meet the project schedule. For one supplier, the technical specification is challenging and requires highly consistent control of metrology in close coordination with the polishing technologies used in order to optimize production rates. For production using multiple suppliers, however the supply chain is structured, consistent control of metrology along the supply chain will be required. This requires a broader pattern of independent verification than is the case of a single supplier. This paper outlines the metrology requirements for a single supplier throughout all stages of the fabrication process. We identify and outline those areas where metrology accuracy and duration have a significant impact on production efficiency. We use the challenging ESO E-ELT technical specification as an example of our treatment, including actual process data. We further develop this model for the case of a supply chain consisting of multiple suppliers. Here, we emphasize the need to control metrology throughout the supply chain in order to optimize net production efficiency.
We report on the first-ever demonstration of grinding and polishing full-size, off-axis aspheric, mirror segments as
prototypes for an extremely large telescope, processed entirely in the final hexagonal shape. We first describe the overall
strategy for controlling form and mid spatial frequencies, at levels in the vicinity of <10nm RMS surface. This relies first
on direct CNC grinding of the base-form of these 1.4m segments, using the Cranfield BoX™ machine. The segments are
then mounted on a custom designed (Optic Glyndwr Optoelectronic Engineering Group) three segment hydraulic
support, and CNC polished on a Zeeko IRP 1600 machine using a variety of custom tooling. We overview the fullaperture
and sub-aperture metrology techniques used to close the process-loop and certify quality, all of which operate
with the segment in-situ on the IRP1600. We then focus on the pristine edge-definition achieved by the combination of
tool-lift and smoothing operations; results never previously demonstrated on full-size pre-cut hexagonal segments.
Finally, the paper discusses the feasibility of scaling the process to deliver 931 segments in seven years, as required for
the E-ELT project.
This paper addresses two challenges in establishing a new process chain for polishing hexagonal segments for
extremely large telescopes:- i) control of edge and corner profiles in small-tool polishing of hexagons, and ii)
achieving the required smoothness of the bulk aspheric form. We briefly describe the performance of a CNC-grinding
process used to create the off-axis asphere, which established the input-quality for subsequent processing. We then
summarize processes for smoothing ground mid-spatials and pre- and corrective polishing using Zeeko CNC
machines. The impact of two cases is considered; i) all processing stages are performed after the segment is cut
hexagonal, and ii) final rectification of a hexagon after cutting from an aspherised roundel, as an alternative to ionfiguring.
We then report on experimental results on witness samples demonstrating edges and corners close to the EELT
segment specification, and results on a full-aperture spherical segment showing excellent surface smoothness.
Following a 'Call for Tenders' by the European Southern Observatory (ESO) a collaboration headed by OpTIC Glyndwr Ltd is producing seven prototype segments for the European Extremely Large Telescope (E-ELT).
Each hexagonal segment is 1.4 m corner-to-corner with a base radius of curvature (ROC) of 84 m and the combination of 984 segments will lead to a primary mirror with a diameter of 42 m. The polishing of the prototype segments occurs in-house at OpTIC Glyndwr using a Zeeko polishing machine, while in situ interferometry is undertaken using a specifically designed optical test tower built above the polishing machine. To confirm the base radius of curvature of the prototype segments an on-machine non-contact profiler is used. The profiler
attaches to the bridge of the polishing machine and is removed during polishing. The design of the profiler is based upon a nanometre optical component measuring machine (NOM) system, originating from the sychrotron optics community. This instrument determines the height at a series of points across the surface through the integration of measured slope data. This paper presents the operation of the OpTIC-NOM as both an on-machine and off-machine profiler. The
accuracy of the profiler both on- and off-machine and its accuracy is compared against similar profilers through its participation in a round robin study. Radius of curvature results are presented for the master spherical segment (MSS), which is a reference optic for the E-ELT segments and highlights a standard deviation on the mean radius
of curvature of 2.5 mm. Finally, a summary of future work is presented regarding the polishing of the prototype segments and the development of a stitching algorithm to produce 3D surface maps from profilometry data.
We describe progress on a novel process-chain being used to produce eight 1.4m hexagonal segments as prototypes for
the European Extremely Large Telescope - a Master Spherical Segment as a reference, and seven aspheric segments. A
new pilot plant integrates a bespoke full-aperture test-tower designed and built by OpTIC Glyndwr, with a Zeeko 1.6m
polishing machine. The process chain starts with aspherising hexagonal segments on the Cranfield BoX™ grinder,
followed by smoothing, corrective-polishing and edge-rectification using the Zeeko CNC platform. The paper describes
the technology and progress, and anticipates how the process-chain is expected to evolve through the seven segments to
increase both process-speed and surface-quality.
A concept is presented for a global network of robotically operated 2m-class telescopes, operating as a single globally
distributed observatory, for follow-up from the emerging generation of gigapixel focal plane survey telescopes and the
investigation of time-domain phenomena. The concept is developed from a model of approximately fifteen networked
telescopes of varying apertures and instrumentation compliments, and an exploration of the operating principles of the
network. A network architecture is presented which is able to deliver the remote operational support of this network. The
operating requirements of the unit telescope design are developed.
The Liverpool Telescope is a 2.0 metre robotic telescope that is operating unattended at the Observatorio del Roque de Los Muchachos, Spain. This paper gives an overview of the design and implementation of the telescope and its instrumentation and presents a snapshot of the current performance during the commissioning process. Science observations are under way, and we give brief highlights from a number of programmes that have been enabled by the robotic nature of the telescope.
KEYWORDS: Telescopes, Space telescopes, Control systems, Servomechanisms, Control systems design, Optical instrument design, Data modeling, Error analysis, Systems modeling, Actuators
The design of high performance motion control systems for large telescopes is an area of major interest. To counteract the effects of parameter variations and uncertainties as well as wind buffeting a robust controller must be designed. This paper outlines an approach for designing H-infinity controllers for the main axes of a class of telescopes. Some choices made during the controller design are briefly considered. The impact on system performance arising from structural resonance, wind buffeting, drive train stiffness and drive stiction are discussed. The controllers are developed from state space models that include wind disturbances. Davenport wind power spectrum is used to characterize wind buffeting. Sub-optimal H-infinity controllers are designed using standard tools in Matlab. The controllers are designed to operate in continuous time but for implementation they are discretized with a sampling time interval of 2.5 milliseconds. Experimental results for both azimuth and altitude are presented and discussed. A summary of RMS servo errors for tracking and pointing is also included.
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