In the high-end optical instrument application, aspherical lenses have replaced spherical lenses and became a key component owing to the aberration correction characteristic it benefits. Though aspherical lenses truly provide multiple advantages, as long as the uncertainty and time-taking issue remain unsolved in CNC polishing process, the term “mass production” will still be far from realization. In this paper, we have developed a method based on Preston’s equation and the Hertz-Contact theorem (HCT) to construct the tool influence function (TIF), hoping to increase the convergence of the process result. We will also discuss how different tool offsets affect the polishing force against the workpiece. We firstly obtained velocity distribution between bonnet and workpiece from dynamics in polar coordinates, then applied the equivalent contacting-Young’s modulus in Hertz-Contact theorem to calculate the pressure distribution model. Subsequently, we conducted a series of experiments under IRP1000 by Zeeko Ltd. and avoided unstable outcomes caused by both machine vibration and deficient tool offset. We modified the parameters into five different feed rates while remaining the equivalent dwelling time, to create more observable features of material removed and further proved the linearity relationship between the dwell time and the removal depth. We applied LP66 as the polishing pad and fused silica as the workpiece to acquire the experiment result.
We propose 3-step fabrication procedures for aspheric surface with larger departure. First step is to generate a specific aspheric surface with SSD depth under 10μm. Next step is to remove SSD and to keep the aspheric form by using Zeeko polisher with higher MRR pad. Final step is to figure and finish the aspheric surface by using QED MRF machine. In this study, we focus on 1st step to investigate the residual depth of SSD after grinding process on fused silica. The abrasion (Aa) or grindability is one of mechanical properties of glass material. The evaluation method of abrasion or grindability is different between the manufacturers. In this study, we apply the specific grinding parameters with #400 and #800 cylindrical diamond wheel on Tongtai GT-630 5-axes machine center. The ultrasonic assisted module is combined with BBT 40 tool arbor. The specifications of the ultrasonic unit are 15 - 45 kHz in frequency range, 0.2-2.5 μm in amplitude, and 1,000 Watt in power. The cross-grinding configuration is used in this study, due to its advantages of non-sensitive cutting direction in Z-axis, high cutting capability with large tools, and low cutting force for generating large convex aspheric surface. Before inspecting the SSD of the samples, wedge polishing would be applied on the ground surface for each sample. In general, the micro cracks of SSD aren’t observed easily by optical microscope due to the micro cracks were stuffed by abrasives of slurry and removed powders of glass. Thus, the mixture solution with hydrofluoric acid (HF) and hydrochloric acid (HCl) in water is used to etch ground surface. After etching, the micro cracks of SSD can be measured by Keyence VK-9700 confocal microscope. The depth of SSD is calculated by length of SSD and wedge angle of the plane.
The design of the ultra miniaturized camera using 3D-printing technology directly printed on to the complementary metal-oxide semiconductor (CMOS) imaging sensor is presented in this paper. The 3D printed micro-optics is manufactured using the femtosecond two-photon direct laser writing, and the figure error which could achieve submicron accuracy is suitable for the optical system. Because the size of the micro-level camera is approximately several hundreds of micrometers, the resolution is reduced much and highly limited by the Nyquist frequency of the pixel pitch. For improving the reduced resolution, one single-lens can be replaced by multiple-aperture lenses with dissimilar field of view (FOV), and then stitching sub-images with different FOV can achieve a high resolution within the central region of the image. The reason is that the angular resolution of the lens with smaller FOV is higher than that with larger FOV, and then the angular resolution of the central area can be several times than that of the outer area after stitching. For the same image circle, the image quality of the central area of the multi-lens system is significantly superior to that of a single-lens. The foveated image using stitching FOV breaks the limitation of the resolution for the ultra miniaturized imaging system, and then it can be applied such as biomedical endoscopy, optical sensing, and machine vision, et al. In this study, the ultra miniaturized camera with multi-aperture optics is designed and simulated for the optimum optical performance.
We present a portable non-contact displacement sensor (NCDS) based on astigmatic method for micron displacement measurement. The NCDS are composed of a collimated laser, a polarized beam splitter, a 1/4 wave plate, an aspheric objective lens, an astigmatic lens and a four-quadrant photodiode. A visible laser source is adopted for easier alignment and usage. The dimension of the sensor is limited to 115 mm x 36 mm x 56 mm, and a control box is used for dealing with signal and power control between the sensor and computer. The NCDS performs micron-accuracy with ±30 μm working range and the working distance is constrained in few millimeters. We also demonstrate the application of the NCDS for lens centration error measurement, which is similar to the total indicator runout (TIR) or edge thickness difference (ETD) of a lens measurement using contact dial indicator. This application has advantage for measuring lens made in soft materials that would be starched by using contact dial indicator.
The grinding process is the primary technology for curvature generation (CG) on glass optics. The higher material removal rate (MRR) leads to deeper sub-surface damage (SSD) on lens surface. The SSD must be removed by following lapping and polishing processes to ensure the lens quality. However, these are not an easy and an efficient process to remove the SSD from ground surface directly for aspheric surfaces with tens or hundreds microns departure from bestfit- sphere (BFS). An efficient fabrication procedure for large aspheric departure on glass materials must be considered. We propose 3-step fabrication procedures for aspheric surface with larger departure. 1st step is to generate a specific aspheric surface with depth less than 10 μm of SSD residual. 2nd step is to remove SSD and keep the aspheric form by using Zeeko polisher with higher MRR pad. Final step is to figure and finish the aspheric surface by using QED MRF machine. In this study, we focus on the 1st step to investigate the residual depth of SSD after grinding process on different abrasion materials. The materials of tested part are fused silica, S-NPH2, and S-PHM52. The cross grinding would be configured and depth of SSD/surface roughness would be evaluated in this study. The characteristic of SSD could be observed after etching by confocal microscope. The experimental results show the depth of SSD below 31.1 μm with #400 grinding wheel. And the near 10 μm depth of SSD would be achieved with #1,000 grinding wheel. It means the aspherization polishing on large parts with large departure from best fit sphere would be replaced. The fabrication of large aspheric part would be efficient.
Spherical lenses lead to forming spherical aberration and reduced optical performance. Consequently, in practice optical system shall apply a combination of spherical lenses for aberration correction. Thus, the volume of the optical system increased. In modern optical systems, aspherical lenses have been widely used because of their high optical performance with less optical components. However, aspherical surfaces cannot be fabricated by traditional full aperture polishing process due to their varying curvature. Sub-aperture computer numerical control (CNC) polishing is adopted for aspherical surface fabrication in recent years. By using CNC polishing process, mid-spatial frequency (MSF) error is normally accompanied during this process. And the MSF surface texture of optics decreases the optical performance for high precision optical system, especially for short-wavelength applications. Based on a bonnet polishing CNC machine, this study focuses on the relationship between MSF surface texture and CNC polishing parameters, which include feed rate, head speed, track spacing and path direction. The power spectral density (PSD) analysis is used to judge the MSF level caused by those polishing parameters. The test results show that controlling the removal depth of single polishing path, through the feed rate, and without same direction polishing path for higher total removal depth can efficiently reduce the MSF error. To verify the optical polishing parameters, we divided a correction polishing process to several polishing runs with different direction polishing paths. Compare to one shot polishing run, multi-direction path polishing plan could produce better surface quality on the optics.
The design of the rigid contact lens (CL) with slope-constrained Q-type aspheres for myopia correction is presented in this paper. The spherical CL is the most common type for myopia correction, however the spherical aberration (SA) caused from the pupil dilation in dark leads to the degradation of visual acuity which cannot be corrected by spherical surface. The spherical and aspheric CLs are designed respectively based on Liou’s schematic eye model, and the criterion is the modulation transfer function (MTF) at the frequency of 100 line pair per mm, which corresponds to the normal vision of one arc-minute. After optimization, the MTF of the aspheric design is superior to that of the spherical design, because the aspheric surface corrects the SA for improving the visual acuity in dark. For avoiding the scratch caused from the contact profilometer, the aspheric surface is designed to match the measurability of the interferometer. The Q-type aspheric surface is employed to constrain the root-mean-square (rms) slope of the departure from a best-fit sphere directly, because the fringe density is limited by the interferometer. The maximum sag departure from a best-fit sphere is also controlled according to the measurability of the aspheric stitching interferometer (ASI). The inflection point is removed during optimization for measurability and appearance. In this study, the aspheric CL is successfully designed with Q-type aspheres for the measurability of the interferometer. It not only corrects the myopia but also eliminates the SA for improving the visual acuity in dark based on the schematic eye model.
This paper presents the validation of the design of a 6-in. f/2.2 dual-wavelength transmission sphere (TS) based on the Fizeau interferometer. The TS was verified at a wavelength of 632.8 nm and is compatible for measuring the transmitted wavefront error of an i-line lithography lens. The achromatic design is imperative for a dual wavelength TS and requires more lenses for correcting the chromatic focal shift. Because the overall weight of the TS should be controlled within the load range of the piezoelectric transducers of the interferometer, the fabrication and mounting of lenses with high aspect ratios are challengeable. The mounting of the reference surface based on three-point mounting was successful for the residual reference wavefront error under peak-to-valley (PV) λ/10. Furthermore, the reference wavefront is typically restricted within PV 5λ to avoid distorted interference fringes. Therefore, we built a double-pass interferometer model for tolerance analysis, and the error budget facilitated decision-making regarding the suitable specifications of lens manufacturing and assembly for cost efficiency. The test results demonstrated that the deformation of the reference wavefront and the residual reference wavefront error met the critical specification at 632.8 nm and that the achromatic TS is compatible for measuring i-line lithography lenses.
The mounting design of a reference surface for a 6-in transmission sphere is presented in this paper. To achieve highprecision measurement in interferometry, the reference wavefront error should be controlled within peak-to-valley (PV) 0.1 λ (λ=0.6328 um) for subtraction in calibration. The reference wavefront error includes the system aberration error and the irregularity of the reference surface. When a transmission sphere is well aligned, the reference wavefront error is dominated by the reference surface. The mounting of the reference surface is imperative because the surface deformation of the reference surface after mounting needs to be lower than 0.1 λ. Besides the mounting deformation, self-weight deformation is also considerable for large optics, such as 6-in reference surface in our study. Consequently, a semikinematic mounting is applied using three small contact areas to avoid over constraint. The transmission sphere in our study is vertically tested on QED aspheric stitching interferometer (ASI), and then the trefoil aberration is occurred. There are two methods to decrease surface deformation after mounting, including deformation correction using computer control optical surfacing (CCOS) and adding soft supporting between hard mounting. In this study, three soft supports are used to share the loads of three rigid supports and then to minimize surface deformation due to gravity. Mounting design and experiments are described in this paper. Finally, the reference wavefront error of the prototype is successfully restrained within 0.1 λ in measurement.
Several mounting configurations could be applied to opto-mechanical design for achieving high precise optical system. The retaining ring mounting is simple and cost effective. However, it would deform the optics due to its unpredictable over-constraint forces. The retaining ring can be modified to three small contact areas becoming a semi-kinematic mounting. The semi-kinematic mounting can give a fully constrained in lens assembly and avoid the unpredictable surface deformation. However, there would be still a deformation due to self-weight in large optics especially in vertical setup applications. The self-weight deformation with a semi-kinematic mounting is a stable, repeatable and predictable combination of power and trefoil aberrations. This predictable deformation can be pre-compensated onto the design surface and be corrected by using CNC polisher. Thus it is a freeform surface before mounting to the lens cell. In this study, the freeform correction polishing is demonstrated in a Φ150 lens with semi-kinematic mounting. The clear aperture of the lens is Φ143 mm. We utilize ANSYS simulation software to analyze the lens deformation due to selfweight deformation with semi-kinematic mounting. The simulation results of the self-weight deformation are compared with the measurement results of the assembled lens cell using QED aspheric stitching interferometer (ASI). Then, a freeform surface of a lens with semi-kinematic mounting due to self-weight deformation is verified. This deformation would be corrected by using QED Magnetorheological Finishing (MRF® ) Q-flex 300 polishing machine. The final surface form error of the assembled lens cell after MRF figuring is 0.042 λ in peak to valley (PV).
The transmission sphere (TS) provides a high-quality reference wavefront which is common path with a test wavefront to generate interference fringes in a Fizeau interferometer. The optical path difference (OPD) of the reference wavefront should be controlled within peak-to-valley (PV) 5 λ (λ=0.6328 um), because too large OPD makes interference fringes distorted. Therefore, the tolerance analysis of the reference wavefront is very critical. Because the surface irregularity of lens can change the phase of a wavefront, surface deformation after mounting highly impacts on the wavefront error. For large optics, such as φ 6-inch in this study, surface deformation dominates the quality of the reference wavefront. For minimizing surface deformation after mounting, semi-kinematic mounting technology is used in sub-cells design to avoid over-constraint forces and unpredictable deformation. Then, the deformation due to gravity force of each surface can be constrained around PV 0.3 λ with Zernike trefoil in vertical setup TS; however, the superposition of the distorted wavefront may deteriorate the optical performance. A method of optimizing orientation of each lens around optical axis is presented in this paper. Sub-cells are designed to be rotational around optical axis respectively. The wavefront error of the reference beam of the worst case is improved significantly after optimization. Consequently, the method can effectively reduce the difficulty of lenses fabrication and mounting, and then the specification of the surface irregularity can be lower for cost saving. Based on the optimization in our study, a good reference wavefront can be acquired without any tight tolerance or complicated assembly.
The design of a 6-in, f/2.2 transmission sphere for Fizeau interferometry is presented in this paper. To predict the actual performance during design phase, we build an interferometer model combined with tolerance analysis in Zemax. Evaluating focus imaging is not enough for a double pass optical system. Thus, we study the interferometer model that includes system error, wavefronts reflected from reference surface and tested surface. Firstly, we generate a deformation map of the tested surface. Because of multiple configurations in Zemax, we can get the test wavefront and the reference wavefront reflected from the tested surface and the reference surface of transmission sphere respectively. According to the theory of interferometry, we subtract both wavefronts to acquire the phase of tested surface. Zernike polynomial is applied to transfer the map from phase to sag and to remove piston, tilt and power. The restored map is the same as original map; because of no system error exists. Secondly, perturbed tolerances including fabrication of lenses and assembly are considered. The system error occurs because the test and reference beam are no longer common path perfectly. The restored map is inaccurate while the system error is added. Although the system error can be subtracted by calibration, it should be still controlled within a small range to avoid calibration error. Generally the reference wavefront error including the system error and the irregularity of the reference surface of 6-in transmission sphere is measured within peak-to-valley (PV) 0.1 λ (λ=0.6328 um), which is not easy to approach. Consequently, it is necessary to predict the value of system error before manufacture. Finally, a prototype is developed and tested by a reference surface with PV 0.1 λ irregularity.
Cassegrain optical systems are widely used in remote sensing instrument. Cassegrain telescope is composed of a primary mirror (M1), a secondary mirror (M2), and a set of correction lenses. The system aberrations of telescope could be corrected and balanced by M1 and M2. In the event of deformation of telescope assembly, the non-symmetry aberrations will be induced to the optical system and reduce the optical performance. The non-symmetry aberrations can be measured after completing M1 and M2 assembly and alignment processes. Compensating this identified error to M1 or M2 can improve the optical performance of the telescope system. The error compensation on M2 is more efficient due to its smaller aperture and quickly assembly and de-assembly processes. In this study, we map the system wavefront error caused by deformation of mirror supporting and gravity onto the designed aspheric surface of M2. The surface of M2 becomes a freeform from aspheric. The polishing process combines the techniques of conventional lapping and CNC polishing. We apply the conventional spherical lapping process to quick remove the sub-surface damage (SSD) layer and to get the accurate radius of best fit sphere of the designed aspheric surface with fine surface texture simultaneously. The polishing and metrology processes were performed by using Zeeko IRP1000 polisher and QED ASI. A Φ 150 mm mirror with freeform surface was completed.
In this research, ultra-precision slow tool servo (STS) diamond turning technique has been adopted to generate a
freeform surface. In the previous studied, we have developed a model of three-dimensional (3-D) tool shape
compensation for generating 3-D tool path in STS diamond turning of asymmetrically freeform surface. However, the
form error is not acceptable when the surface sagitta or tangential slope variation too large. Therefore, the surface form
error compensation method has been developed in this studied. The surface form error has been compensated from 3μm
to less than 1μm by the compensation method.
Sub-aperture testing methods are widely used in optical shops to test surface deformations of large diameter, high
numerical aperture, or aspherical lens surfaces. We are proposing a novel 4 axis vibration modulated interferometer for
subaperture testing. This interferometer takes advantage of the rotationally symmetric property of the optical lens and
measures the lens surface against its symmetry axis rotationally. By adapting a synchronous random phase modulation
measurement, interferometric data is acquired on the fly when the lens is being rotated. The vibration modulated
interference phase is then calculated and stitched into a complete lens surface map by least squared fitting. This method
has advantages over the prior methods in that it acquires the interferogram in a much shorter acquisition time, even with
lower requirements on the optics and mechanical hardware. The stitch error is then significantly decreased by increasing
both the lateral resolution of sub-aperture and the reduced position uncertainty of the stitched sub-aperture phase maps.
A measurement on a mild asphere is demonstrated to prove the feasibility of the proposed interferometer.
In this study, efficient polishing processes with inspection procedures for a large convex hyperbolic mirror of Cassegrain
optical system are presented. The polishing process combines the techniques of conventional lapping and CNC polishing.
We apply the conventional spherical lapping process to quickly remove the sub-surface damage (SSD) layer caused by
grinding process and to get the accurate radius of best-fit sphere (BFS) of aspheric surface with fine surface texture
simultaneously. Thus the removed material for aspherization process can be minimized and the polishing time for SSD
removal can also be reduced substantially. The inspection procedure was carried out by using phase shift interferometer
with CGH and stitching technique. To acquire the real surface form error of each sub aperture, the wavefront errors of
the reference flat and CGH flat due to gravity effect of the vertical setup are calibrated in advance. Subsequently, we
stitch 10 calibrated sub-aperture surface form errors to establish the whole irregularity of the mirror in 160 mm diameter
for correction polishing. The final result of the In this study, efficient polishing processes with inspection procedures for a large convex hyperbolic mirror of Cassegrain
optical system are presented. The polishing process combines the techniques of conventional lapping and CNC polishing.
We apply the conventional spherical lapping process to quickly remove the sub-surface damage (SSD) layer caused by
grinding process and to get the accurate radius of best-fit sphere (BFS) of aspheric surface with fine surface texture
simultaneously. Thus the removed material for aspherization process can be minimized and the polishing time for SSD
removal can also be reduced substantially. The inspection procedure was carried out by using phase shift interferometer
with CGH and stitching technique. To acquire the real surface form error of each sub aperture, the wavefront errors of
the reference flat and CGH flat due to gravity effect of the vertical setup are calibrated in advance. Subsequently, we
stitch 10 calibrated sub-aperture surface form errors to establish the whole irregularity of the mirror in 160 mm diameter
for correction polishing. The final result of the Fabrication of ф160 mm Convex Hyperbolic Mirror for Remote Sensing Instrument160 mm convex hyperbolic mirror is 0.15 μm PV and 17.9 nm RMS.160 mm convex hyperbolic mirror is 0.15 μm PV and 17.9 nm RMS.
In this study, the measurement of a 160 mm convex hyperbolic mirror by using the 6 inches phase shifting interferometer
and the CGH (computer-generated hologram) in a vertical setup is presented. The wavefront errors of the metrology
system including the reference flat and CGH flat due to gravity effect are measured and calibrated by using random
testing and null cavity testing with and without CGH. Then, the real form error of each single sub-aperture could be
acquired by subtracting the system wavefront errors. In this study, we measured form errors of 10 off-axis sub-apertures
with equal angle space and then stitched them to establish the whole irregularity in the shape of the mirror in 160 mm
diameter. Finally, we imported the irregularity in the shape of the mirror to the CNC aspheric polishing machine for
correction polishing. Combining the aspheric metrology technique and the CNC aspheric polishing technique, a 160 mm
secondary mirror for the Cassegrain reflecting system was finished within PV 0.15μm and RMS 17.9 nm.
Air-driving fluid jet polishing (FJP) technique was first presented in 2011. Slurry was drop out due to Venturi effect inside the atomizer which is the main component of air-driving FJP system, and was guided to mix with air flow by the nozzle. The Venturi effect and the added high speed air flow provide slurry more kinetic energy to impact the optical surface. Therefore, the air-driving FJP system has a rotational symmetrical Gaussian-like removal profile with lower air pressure and normal incidence configuration. In this paper, we investigate oblique incidence polishing to find the optimal material removal performance of the technique, including removal shape and depth and surface roughness. Different oblique angles ranged from 80 to 20 degree were tested. The air-driving FJP system was adapted upon a CNC machine, so not only single point polishing but also straight line polishing with constant feed rate can be carried out. We report on the performance of oblique air-driving FJP in different air pressure and processing time, and also the material removal of dynamic polishing for N-BK7, Fused Silica and ZERODUR®. The results indicate oblique incidence can get a Gaussian-like removal shape, and improve the surface roughness. The air-driving FJP not only has the advantages of conventional fluid jet polishing, such as no tool wears, cutter interference and debris deposition problems, but also has excellent material removal rate with lower energy.
Bi-directional viewer just likes a lens of camera. Unlike conventional camera lens, the bi-directional viewer captures not
only front view but also side view around the bi-directional viewer. The barrel of bi-directional viewer was designed to
have cuts in the side to allow side light to come through, and we use two aspherical mirrors to receive and change the
side light to converge on the main optical path. The front view and side view can be imaged simultaneously on an image
sensor. Commercial aspherized achromatic lens and micro video lens were also used to keep the image quality and
miniaturize the size of the bi-directional viewer respectively. We report on the development of bi-directional viewer,
including optical design, optical simulation, optomechanics design, fabrication techniques, assembly procedure and
performance testing. The MTF of the bi-directional viewer is also measured and discussed in this paper. We successfully
design and realize a bi-directional viewer, which can perform 100 lp/mm spatial frequency image in detail above 20%
contrast in the 7.6 mm front view area. And we keep the dimensions of this device within 35 mm in total length and Φ20
mm in diameter.
In this study, we proposed an air-driving fluid jet polishing (FJP) system which draws slurry utilizing an air/water mixer.
The air-driving FJP system is mainly comprised by an air/water mixer, slurry tank with stirrer, compressed air, pressure
and flow rate regulators, and a nozzle. The high speed air flow in the air/water mixer draws out the slurry from the slurry
tank, and the slurry is guided to mix with air flow inside the nozzle cavity. Then, the combined fluid slurry is emitted
from the nozzle. The air-driving FJP system was preliminarily tested on N-BK7 and ZERODUR® plates with different
air pressure and processing time. The test results show that the air-driving system could get a Gaussian-like removal
shape with 3 kg/cm2 compressed air source and the depth of removal is about 100 nm within 5 seconds processing time.
The compressed air improves the kinetic energy of each abrasive, and makes it more efficient in material removal.
Furthermore, the Gaussian-like removal shape is more convenient for tool path planning and surface waviness control of
corrective polishing.
In ultra-precision (distortion < 0.5 %) vision inspection system, the accuracy of measurement depends on sharpness and
distortion of image. The telecentric lens provides distortion-free and constant magnification (within depth of field)
image, so it has become an indispensable key module in the amount of visual measuring system. The article presents a
design and development of telecentric lens module for the wide range of vision inspection system (field-of-view > 100
mm). Based on the concept of equivalent design in optical tolerances, the lens module can be designed readily into a
telecentric system, which consists of five spherical lenses and a glass molded aspheric lens. In order to correct image
distortion, an aspheric lens would be added to the telecentric system. The experiment shows that the distortion can be
reduced from 1.5 % to 0.34 % and the depth of field (DOF) is also improved up to 28.3 mm.
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