Today’s SSL illumination market shows a clear trend towards high flux packages with higher efficiency and higher CRI,
realized by means of multiple color chips and phosphors. Such light sources require the optics to provide both near- and
far-field color mixing. This design problem is particularly challenging for collimated luminaries, since traditional
diffusers cannot be employed without enlarging the exit aperture and reducing brightness (so increasing étendue).
Furthermore, diffusers compromise the light output ratio (efficiency) of the lamps to which they are applied.
A solution, based on Köhler integration, consisting of a spherical cap comprising spherical microlenses on both its
interior and exterior sides was presented in 2012. When placed on top of an inhomogeneous multichip Lambertian LED,
this so-called Shell-Mixer creates a homogeneous (both spatially and angularly) virtual source, also Lambertian, where
the images of the chips merge. The virtual source is located at the same position with essentially the same size of the
original source. The diameter of this optics was 3 times that of the chip-array footprint.
In this work, we present a new version of the Shell-Mixer, based on the Edge Ray Principle, where neither the overall
shape of the cap nor the surfaces of the lenses are constrained to spheres or rotational Cartesian ovals. This new Shell-
Mixer is freeform, only twice as large as the original chip-array and equals the original model in terms of brightness,
color uniformity and efficiency.
Today’s SSL illumination market shows a clear trend to high flux packages with higher efficiency and higher CRI, realized by means of multiple color chips and phosphors. Such light sources require the optics to provide both near- and far-field color mixing. This design problem is particularly challenging for collimated luminaries, since traditional diffusers cannot be employed without enlarging the exit aperture and reducing brightness. Furthermore, diffusers compromise the light output ratio (efficiency) of the lamps to which they are applied. A solution, based on Köhler integration, consisting of a spherical cap comprising spherical microlenses on both its interior and exterior sides was presented in 2012. The diameter of this so-called Shell-Mixer was 3 times that of the chip array footprint. A new version of the Shell-Mixer, based on the Edge Ray Principle and conservation of etendue, where neither the outer shape of the cap nor the surfaces of the lenses are constrained to spheres or 2D Cartesian ovals will be shown in this work. The new shell is freeform, only twice as large as the original chip-array and equals the original model in terms of color uniformity, brightness and efficiency.
Transmission-type concentrator photovoltaic (CPV) systems are a potential candidate to achieve high efficiency and low cost solar energy. The use of optical elements in these systems creates reflection losses of incoming solar energy that account for about 8% to 12% depending on the optical design. In order to reduce these losses, we have nanostructured the air/optical-elements’ interfaces by using plasma etching methods on the Fresnel lens made of poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA) and the homogenizer made of glass. On flat PMMA and glass substrates, transmittance enhancement measurements are in agreement with relative Jsc gains. The field test results using a CPV module with all textured optical-elements’ interfaces achieved 8.0% and 4.3% relative Jsc and efficiency gains, respectively, demonstrating the potential of this approach to tackle the reflection losses.
High flux and high CRI may be achieved by combining different chips and/or phosphors. This, however, results in
inhomogeneous sources that, when combined with collimating optics, typically produce patterns with undesired artifacts.
These may be a combination of spatial, angular or color non-uniformities. In order to avoid these effects, there is a need
to mix the light source, both spatially and angularly. Diffusers can achieve this effect, but they also increase the etendue
(and reduce the brightness) of the resulting source, leading to optical systems of increased size and wider emission
angles.
The shell mixer is an optic comprised of many lenses on a shell covering the source. These lenses perform Kohler
integration to mix the emitted light, both spatially and angularly. Placing it on top of a multi-chip Lambertian light
source, the result is a highly homogeneous virtual source (i.e, spatially and angularly mixed), also Lambertian, which is
located in the same position with essentially the same size (so the average brightness is not increased). This virtual light
source can then be collimated using another optic, resulting in a homogeneous pattern without color separation.
Experimental measurements have shown optical efficiency of the shell of 94%, and highly homogeneous angular
intensity distribution of collimated beams, in good agreement with the ray-tracing simulations.
KEYWORDS: Solar concentrators, Prototyping, Electrical efficiency, Solar cells, Solar energy, Dispersion, Fresnel lenses, Temperature metrology, Sun, Optics manufacturing
Most cost-effective concentrated photovoltaics (CPV) systems are based on an optical train comprising two stages, the first being a Fresnel lens. Among them, the Fresnel-Köhler (FK) concentrator stands out owing to both performance and practical reasons. We describe the experimental measurements procedure for FK concentrator modules. This procedure includes three main types of measurements: electrical efficiency, acceptance angle, and irradiance uniformity at the solar cell plane. We have collected here the performance features of two different FK prototypes (ranging different f -numbers, concentration ratios, and cell sizes). The electrical efficiencies measured in both prototypes are high and fit well with the models, achieving values up to 32.7% (temperature corrected, and with no antireflective coating on SOE or POE surfaces) in the best case. The measured angular transmission curves show large acceptance angles, again perfectly matching the expected values [measured concentration acceptance product (CAP) values over 0.56]. The irradiance pattern on the cell (obtained with a digital camera) shows an almost perfectly uniform distribution, as predicted by raytrace simulations. All these excellent on-sun results confirm the FK concentrator as a potentially cost-effective solution for the CPV market.
In SSL general illumination, there is a clear trend to high flux packages with higher efficiency and higher CRI addressed with the use of multiple color chips and phosphors. However, such light sources require the optics provide color mixing, both in the near-field and far-field. This design problem is specially challenging for collimated luminaries, in which diffusers (which dramatically reduce the brightness) cannot be applied without enlarging the exit aperture too much. In this work we present first injection molded prototypes of a novel primary shell-shaped optics that have microlenses on both sides to provide Köhler integration. This shell is design so when it is placed on top of an inhomogeneous multichip Lambertian LED, creates a highly homogeneous virtual source (i.e, spatially and angularly mixed), also Lambertian, which is located in the same position with only small increment of the size (about 10-20%, so the average brightness is similar to the brightness of the source). This shell-mixer device is very versatile and permits now to use a lens or a reflector secondary optics to collimate the light as desired, without color separation effects. Experimental measurements have shown optical efficiency of the shell of 95%, and highly homogeneous angular intensity distribution of collimated beams, in good agreement with the ray-tracing simulations.
A new design for a photovoltaic concentrator, the most recent advance based on the Kohler concept, is presented. The
system is mirror-based, and with geometry that guaranties a maximum sunlight collection area (without shadows, like
those caused by secondary stages or receivers and heat-sinks in other mirror-based systems). Designed for a concentration of 1000x, this off axis system combines both good acceptance angle and good irradiance uniformity on the solar cell. The advanced performance features (concentration-acceptance products –CAP- about 0.73 and affordable peak and average irradiances) are achieved through the combination of four reflective folds combined
with four refractive surfaces, all of them free-form, performing Köhler integration 2. In Köhler devices, the irradiance uniformity is not achieved through additional optical stages (TIR prisms), thus no complex/expensive elements to manufacture are required. The rim angle and geometry are such that the secondary stage and receivers are hidden below the primary mirrors, so maximum collection is assured. The entire system was designed to allow loose assembly/alignment tolerances (through high acceptance angle) and to be manufactured using already well-developed methods for mass production, with high potential for low cost. The optical surfaces for Köhler integration, although with a quite different optical behavior, have approximately the same dimensions and can be manufactured with the same techniques as the more traditional secondary optical elements used for concentration (typically plastic injection molding or glass molding). This paper will show the main design features, along with realistic performance simulations considering all spectral characteristics of the elements involved.
Concentration Photovoltaics (CPV) is one of the most promising areas for competitive solar electricity production. This
promise relies upon the use of high-efficiency triple-junction solar cells (which already have proven efficiencies over
41%) and upon advanced optics designs, which allow for high concentration concurrent with high manufacturing
tolerances, both key elements for low cost mass production.
In this paper we will present the progress in the development of the most advanced CPV optical designs at present. These
are based on free-form optics using Köhler homogenization. The degree of freedom of using free-forms allows the
introduction of multiple functionalities in a few optical elements, which provide the required concentration with high
tolerance and excellent light homogenization.
Different families are presented. The first group uses a Fresnel lens as a primary optic (called the FK concentrator and
the F-RXI concentrator) and a second group using mirrors as primaries (the XR and the XXR). How they compare
among them and also with classical designs will be discussed. The FK is in the process of being brought to market and
has already experimentally proven module electrical (DC) efficiencies over 30% (equivalent to over 32% with correction
to Tcell=25ºC) with no AR coatings at a concentration of 625x with high tolerance angle (over ±1.2º).
The XR-Köhler concentrator1 is a design that has the possibility to work under high concentration, maintaining the high
acceptance angle and high irradiance uniformity on the solar cell. It is an on-axis free-form design that consists of a
reflective (X) and refractive (R) surface. For a geometrical concentration of about 800x the simulated results show an
acceptance angle of ±1.79deg with high irradiance uniformity on the solar cell. This article shows the design results of
the XR-Köhler and also a novel passive cooling system (LPI patented) that keeps the solar cell operation temperature
under 100°C at extreme conditions (wind speed = 0 m/s, module tilt angle = 45deg and Ta = 50°C). The results of using
the XR-Köhler device as a collimator when the light source has very high non-uniform luminance distribution, i.e.
multichip LEDs, are also here presented.
It is essential to obtain high values of tolerance for CPV concentrators because manufacturing process always implies
some accuracy errors. This paper presents the Fresnel Köhler concentrator (FK), an advanced optical concentrator
comprising a Fresnel lens as a primary element and a refractive secondary element, both presenting free-form surfaces.
This optic produces both, the desired light concentration and high tolerance (i.e. high acceptance angle), as well as an
excellent light homogenization by Köhler integration simultaneously. A comparison between the FK and other current
conventional Fresnel-based CPV concentrators is also presented, being our concentrator superior to its competitors in
terms of tolerances, irradiance homogeneity and manufacturability.
At module level (one single solar cell), the Fresnel-Köhler (FK) concentrator comprises a perfect irradiance uniformity
along with quite high concentration-acceptance angle product. At the same time, it maintains the efficiency/simplicity of
other Fresnel-based concentrators. In this work we will show the FK concentrator has loose manufacturing tolerances as
well. All these facts, along with the pill-box shape of its transmission curve, permit an enhanced performance of this
device, compared to its competitors, at array level, because the system is more insensitive to manufacturing errors, and
current mismatch is less likely to occur. Or the same performance can be achieved at a lower cost, exhausting the
tolerance budget by using inexpensive fabrication techniques. Depending on the concentrator, the actual power delivered
by an array might drop significantly with respect to the sum of the power delivered by single modules. Under certain
circumstances, the FK can reach a 1-10% electrical efficiency increase with regards to other concentrators sharing the
same technology.
The Boeing Company Phantom Works has
developed three different prototype photovoltaic
concentrator arrays since March 2007. Identified as
Prototype A, B and C, the experimentally proven technical
characteristics of each design are presented. The
concentrator designs utilize a 1 cm2 multi-junction solar
cell assembly in conjunction with SMS non-imaging optical
designs [1, 2] manufactured with low-cost mass-producible
technologies. Prototype A is an on-axis XR optical
concentrator with a 733x geometrical concentration
demonstrating a ± 1.73° acceptance angle and 23.7%
conversion efficiency. Prototype B is an off-axis free-form
XR optical concentrator with a 810x geometrical
concentration demonstrating a ± 1.32° acceptance angle
and 25.3% conversion efficiency. Prototype C is the most
recent off-axis free-form XR optical concentrator with a
801x geometrical concentration and a theoretical ±1.80°
acceptance angle demonstrating a conversion efficiency
greater than 27.0%. Prototype C is also the basis for the
Boeing Proof of Design (POD) module, demonstrating an
acceptance angle of ±1.48° and a conversion efficiency of
29.4% (as of May 8, 2009). Manufacturability has been
paramount during the design process, resulting in high
performance concentrating photovoltaic modules using
production quality components.
The Köhler illumination concept was originally invented to achieve uniform illumination in microscopy1. Köhler
integrators can also be formed by arrays of lenticulations that can be any combination of reflective and/or refractive
surfaces, organized in corresponding pairs. Arrays of integrating facets can be arranged not only on flat surfaces but on
rotationally symmetric and even freeform surfaces6. Currently flat lenslet arrays are widely applied as homogenizing
optics2 for lithography, machine vision illumination, and projection.
Adding Köhler facets onto already designed surfaces can improve the optical system performance, while respecting its
original function. In general, the optics output can be made somewhat independent of the source characteristics, although
at the expense of a slight ètendue dilution or efficiency losses.
This work revises the Köhler concept and its application to different kind of optics, ranging from photovoltaic
concentrators to automotive LED headlights. In the former, irradiance peaks on the solar cell can be avoided, while
preserving high aiming tolerance (acceptance) of the solar concentrator. In the latter, LEDs drawbacks like large source
image sizes, source misalignments, ill defined source edges, and low source radiance can be compensated.
A novel photovoltaic concentrator is presented. The goal is to achieve high concentration design with high efficiency and
high acceptance angle that in the same time is compact and convenient for thermal and mechanical management [1].
This photovoltaic system is based on 1 cm2 multi-junction tandem solar cells and an XR concentrator. The XR
concentrator in this system is an SMS 3D design formed by one reflective (X) and one refractive (R) free-form surfaces
(i.e., without rotational or linear symmetry) and has been chosen for its excellent aspect ratio and for its ability to
perform near the thermodynamic limit. It is a mirror-lens device that has no shadowing elements and has square entry
aperture (the whole system aperture area is used for collecting light). This large acceptance angle relaxes the
manufacturing tolerances of all the optical and mechanical components of the system included the concentrator itself and
is one of the keys to get a cost competitive photovoltaic generator.
For the geometrical concentration of 1000x the simulation results show the acceptance angle of ±1.8 deg. The irradiance
distribution on the cell is achieved with ultra-short homogenizing prism, whose size is optimised to keep the maximum
values under the ones that the cell can accept.
The application of the XR optics to high-concentration is being developed in a consortium leaded by The Boeing
Company, which has been awarded a project by US DOE in the framework of the Solar America Initiative.
A novel photovoltaic concentrator is presented. The goal is to achieve high concentration design with high efficiency and
high acceptance angle that in the same time is compact and convenient for thermal and mechanical management.
This photovoltaic system is based on 1 cm2 multi-junction tandem solar cells and an XR concentrator. The XR
concentrator in this system is an SMS 3D design formed by one reflective (X) and one refractive (R) free-form surfaces
(i.e., without rotational or linear symmetry) and has been chosen for its excellent aspect ratio and for its ability to
perform near the thermodynamic limit. It is a mirror-lens device that has no shadowing elements and has square entry
aperture (the whole system aperture area is used for collecting light). This large acceptance angle relaxes the
manufacturing tolerances of all the optical and mechanical components of the system included the concentrator itself and
is one of the keys to get a cost competitive photovoltaic generator.
For the geometrical concentration of 1000x the simulation results show the acceptance angle of ±1.8 deg. The irradiance
distribution on the cell is achieved with ultra-short homogenizing prism, whose size is optimised to keep the maximum
values under the ones that the cell can accept.
The application of the XR optics to high-concentration is being developed in a consortium leaded by The Boeing
Company, which has been awarded a project by US DOE in the framework of the Solar America Initiative.
A new free-form XR Kohler concentrator is presented that combines high geometric concentration, high acceptance
angle and high irradiance uniformity on the solar cell. This is achieved by modifying the optical surfaces to produce
Kohler integration. Although the new optical surfaces (that is, the ones including Kohler integration) behave optically
quite different from the ones that do not integrate, but from the macroscopic point of view they are very similar to them.
This means that they can be manufactured with the same techniques (typically plastic injection molding or glass
molding) and that their production cost is the same i.e., with a high potential for low cost and high optical efficiency.
The present approach is completely new and allows keeping the acceptance angle at high values and the concentration
factor without increasing the number of optical elements. The simulated optical performance of a Kohler integrating
solar concentrator is presented. This concept is the first design combining non flat array of Kohler integrators with
concentration optics.
The performance of the XR solar concentrator, using a high efficiency multi-junction solar cell developed
recently by Spectrolab, is presented. The XR concentrator is an ultra-compact Nonimaging optical design
composed of a primary mirror and a secondary lens, which can perform close to the thermodynamic limit
of concentration (maximum acceptance angle for a given geometrical concentration). The expected
acceptance angle of the concentrator is about ±2 deg for a geometrical concentration of 800x (a Fresnel
lens and secondary system typically has ±0.6 deg of acceptance for 300x of geometrical concentration).
This concentrator is optimized to improve the irradiance distribution on the solar cell keeping it under the
maximum values the cell can accept.
The XR concentrator has high manufacturing tolerance to errors and can be produced using low cost
manufacturing techniques. The XR is designed with the Simultaneous Multiple Surface (SMS) design
method of Nonimaging Optics. Its application to high-concentration photovoltaics is now being
developed in a consortium led by The Boeing Company, which has recently been awarded a project by
the US DOE in the framework of the Solar America Initiative.
The performance of the XR solar concentrator, using a high efficiency multi-junction solar cell developed
recently by Spectrolab, is presented. The XR concentrator is an ultra-compact Nonimaging optical design
composed of a primary mirror and a secondary lens, which can perform close to the thermodynamic limit
of concentration (maximum acceptance angle for a given geometrical concentration). The expected
acceptance angle of the concentrator is about ±2 deg for a geometrical concentration of 800x (a Fresnel
lens and secondary system typically has ±0.6 deg of acceptance for 300x of geometrical concentration).
This concentrator is optimized to improve the irradiance distribution on the solar cell keeping it under the
maximum values the cell can accept.
The XR concentrator has high manufacturing tolerance to errors and can be produced using low cost
manufacturing techniques. The XR is designed with the Simultaneous Multiple Surface (SMS) design
method of Nonimaging Optics. Its application to high-concentration photovoltaics is now being
developed in a consortium led by The Boeing Company, which has recently been awarded a project by
the US DOE in the framework of the Solar America Initiative.
One of the most usual procedures to measure a concentrator optical efficiency is by direct comparison between the photocurrent generated by the compound concentrator/solar cell and photocurrent that single cell would generate under identical radiation conditions. Unfortunately, such procedure can give a good idea of the generator final performance, but can not indicate the real amount of radiation that will impinge over the cell.
This apparent contradiction is based on the fact that once the cell is coupled with the concentrator, rays incidence is not perpendicular, but highly oblique, with an angle that can reach 70o or even greater for high concentration devices. The antireflective coating of the cell does not perform well enough for the whole incidence angle and frequency ranges because low cost is other important requirement for the solar cells. In consequence, the generated photocurrent drops for large incidence angles. In our case, a 70% incidence angle could, in the worst case, mean a 34% loss on generated photocurrent.
With the aim of correcting such problem a special device has been designed in the framework of a EU funded project called HAMLET. The concept of the device is to substitute the concentrator receptor by a system formed by an optical collimator that would reduce concentration and incidence angle, and a characterized solar cell. The paper gives the results of this measuring procedure.
KEYWORDS: Solar concentrators, Mirrors, Sun, Optical design, Prototyping, Solar cells, System integration, Tandem solar cells, Computer aided design, Imaging systems
A novel two-mirror high concentration nonimaging optic has been designed that shares the advantages of present two mirror aplanatic imaging concentrators but also overcomes their main limitation of trade-off between acceptance angle and irradiance uniformity. A system concept has been defined, and a first prototype in under development.
A novel LED light extraction and mixing optic and two free form SMS surfaces are employed in a high efficiency projection optic. By combining the light of several high brightness LEDs with a single optical element, an ultrabright light source can be formed, whose shape and emission characteristics can be adapted to almost many kinds of illumination problems. A LED combiner forms a virtual source that is tailored for application. The illuminance distribution of this virtual source facilitates the generation of the desired intensity pattern by projecting it into the far field. The projection is accomplished by one refractive and one reflective freeform surface calculated by the 3D SMS method. The method is demonstrated for an LED automotive headlamp. A high quality intensity pattern shape and a very sharp cutoff are created tolerant to LED to optics misalignment and illuminance variations across the LED surface. A low and high beam design with more than 75% total optical efficiency have been achieved.
One of the most challenging applications for high brightness LEDs is in automotive headlights. Optical designs for a low or high beam headlights are plagued by the low flux and luminance of LEDs compared to HID or incandescent sources, by mechanical chip placement tolerances and by color and flux variations between different LEDs. Furthermore the creation of a sharp cutoff is very difficult without baffles or other lossy devices.
We present a novel LED headlight design that addresses all of the above problems by mixing the light of several LEDs first in a tailored light guide called LED combiner, thereby reducing color and flux variations between different LEDs and illuminance and color variations across the LED surfaces. The LED combiner forms a virtual source tailored to the application. The illuminance distribution of this virtual source facilitates the generation of the desired intensity pattern by projecting it into the far field. The projection is accomplished by one refractive and one reflective freeform surface calculated by the 3D SMS method. A high quality intensity pattern shape and a very sharp cutoff are created tolerant to LED to optics misalignment and illuminance variations across the LED surface.
A low and high beam design with more than 75% total optical efficiency (without cover lens) and performance as latest HID headlights have been achieved. Furthermore it is shown that the architecture has similar tolerance requirements as conventional mass produced headlights.
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